
EDUCATIO 
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FOR HOME AND SCHOOL 



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THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 

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EDUCATIONAL WOODWORKING 
FOR HOME AND SCHOOL 



BY 

JOSEPH C. PARK 

STATE NORMAL AND TRAINING SCHOOL 
OSWEGO, NEW YORK 




Nefo gotk 

THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 

1908 

All rights reserved 



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LIBRARY of CONGRESS.] 

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MAR 17 S 908 

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Copyright, 1908, 
By THE MACMILLAN COMPANY. 



Set up and electrotyped. Published ; March, ic 



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Norwood, Mass., U.S.A. 



We are always in these days endeavoring to separate intellect 
and manual labor; we want one man to be always thinking, and 
another to be always working, and we call one a gentleman, and 
the other an operative ; whereas the workman ought often to be 
thinking, and the thinker often to be working, and both should 
be gentlemen in the best sense. As it is, we make both ungentle, 
the one envying, the other despising, his brother ; and the mass 
of society is made up of morbid thinkers and miserable workers. 

— John Ruskin. 



a _, 



PREFACE 

The increased popularity of manual training as a 
part of the curriculum of the public schools and the 
demand for a text-book that can be put into the hands 
of pupils so that they may be held responsible for 
important subject-matter in connection with wood- 
work are the two main reasons which have led to the 
publication of this volume. The book, for convenience, 
is divided into parts, but it is not intended that Part I 
shall be completed before Part II is taken up. On the 
other hand, work should be given from the different 
parts from the beginning, and pupils should be held 
responsible for the work given just as they are held 
responsible for work in arithmetic or geography. 

The book is intended to be used under the direction 
of a skilled instructor who has sufficient technical 
knowledge and teaching ability to lead his pupils to 
become capable in this line of work. Many illustra- 
tions of positions while at work are therefore omitted, 
because the instructor should show correct positions 
in the use of tools and should insist that the pupils 
acquire correct habits in their use. 

The " Schedule of Work" (page 14) gives in a general 
way the plan of the work. In some schools it may be 
necessary to make a few changes in this schedule, owing 
to local conditions, but as far as possible it should be 
followed. The work under "Topics for Study," 

vii 



Vlll PREFACE 

" Technical Operations," and " Tools " should be given 
in the form of regular recitation work, having both 
oral and written work. Pupils should have sufficient 
work with the " Key " so that they may be able to know 
the names and characteristics of common woods. The 
work in all of its phases should be vigorous and full 
of well-directed activity. 

The writer wishes to acknowledge his gratitude for 
helps given in the preparation of this volume, aside 
from the various sources which are given in the foot- 
notes, to the following : — 

Herbert H. Smith, Editor Forest Service Publica- 
tions, for permission to use the key given in Appendix A; 
President Cree T. Work, College of Industrial Arts, 
Denton, Texas, for the cuts given in Appendix B, also 
for the cuts shown under Figs. 148 and 263, all of 
which were taken from his San Francisco " Outlines of 
Manual Training " ; Professor C. R. Richards, Dean 
of Engineering, the University of Nebraska, Lincoln, 
Nebraska, for the cuts shown in Figs. 208, 210, 211, 
213, 214, 215, 224, and 225, which were taken from 
his "A Manual of Wood Turning." 

The writer is also deeply indebted to the following 
people, who so kindly sent to him for publication in 
this volume drawings of successful projects which 
have been used in some of the leading manual training 
centers in the United States : — 

Mr. L. A. Bacon, Director of Manual Training, In- 
dianapolis, Indiana ; Mr. L. R. Abbott, Director of 
Manual Training, and Mr. Emil Wydman, Grand Rapids, 
Michigan ; Mr. C. E. Karlson, Director of Manual Train- 
ing, Altoona, Pennsylvania; Mr. Louis C. Butler and 



PREFACE IX 

Mr. R. F. J. Raebel, St. Louis, Missouri; Mr. B. H. 
Van Oot, Director of Manual Training, Normal Uni- 
versity, Las Vegas, New Mexico ; Mr. T. W. Breck- 
heimer, North High School, Minneapolis, Minnesota ; 
and Mr. Bradley S. Joice and Mr. Donald S. McGuire, 
Maryland School for the Blind, Baltimore, Maryland. 

The manuscript has been read by Dr. William C. 
Bagley and Professor Amos W. Farnham of the State 
Normal and Training School, Oswego, New York, both 
of whom have offered valuable criticisms, for which 
the writer wishes to express his gratitude. 

The writer is also indebted to the following manu- 
facturers for cuts used in this publication and for 
information regarding tools and machines : — 

Sargent & Company, 149 Leonard Street, New York. 

Hammacher, Schlemmer & Company, New York. 

Stanley Rule and Level Company, New Britain, Connecticut. 

Henry Disston & Sons, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. 

Cincinnati Tool Company, Cincinnati, Ohio. 

Bickford & Francis Belting Company, Buffalo, New York. 

American Woodworking Machinery Company, Rochester, New 

York. 
J. T. Towsley Manufacturing Company, Cincinnati, Ohio. 
Brown & Sharpe Manufacturing Company, Providence, Rhode 

Island. 
Millers Falls Company, 28 Warren Street, New York. 
Grand Rapids Hand Screw Company, Grand Rapids, Michigan. 
Pike Manufacturing Company, Pike, New Hampshire. 
The Carborundum Company, Niagara Falls, New York. 
The Cleveland Stone Company, Cleveland, Ohio. 
Ridgway Dynamo and Engine Company, Ridgway, Pennsylvania. 
The David Maydole Hammer Company, Norwich, New York. 
Buck Brothers, Millbury, Massachusetts. 
Syracuse Twist Drill Company, Syracuse, New York. 



X PREFACE 

Columbus Forge and Iron Company, Columbus, Ohio. 
Utica Drop Forge Company, Utica, New York. 
Coes Wrench Company, Worcester, Massachusetts. 
C. Parker Company, Meriden, Connecticut. 

E. C. Stearns & Company, Syracuse, New York. 
Nicholson File Company, Providence, Rhode Island. 
Fox Machine Company, Grand Rapids, Michigan. 
Snell Manufacturing Company, Fiskdale, Massachusetts. 

F. E. Reed Company, Worcester, Massachusetts. 

The Russell Jennings Manufacturing Company, Deep River, 
Connecticut. 

The tables given under Wood (Part III) are taken 
from Bulletin No. 10, United States Division of 
Forestry. 

Some of the matter given in the Introduction, and 
on nails and nailing, screws and glue, is taken from 
articles which were written by the author for American 
Education, and are published here by agreement. 

The writer also wishes to acknowledge his gratitude 

to Dr. Isaac B. Poucher, Principal of the State Normal 

and Training School, Oswego, New York, for the many 

suggestions and encouragements which he has given in 

the working out of experiments in manual training 

work, which have contributed largely to the success of 

this volume. 

JOSEPH C. PARK. 

State Normal and Training School, 
Oswego, New York, June, 1907. 



CONTENTS 

PAGE 

Introduction 1 

Manual training : what it is and its place in education; 
suggestions to students ; schedule of work ; tool list ; 
technical terms. 

PAET 1 

Woodworking Tools 21 

1. Benches. 2. English measure. 3. The metric 
system. 4. Rule. 5. Try-square. 6. Bevel. 7. Fram- 
ing square. 8. Rafter table directions. 9. Brace meas- 
ure. 10. Octagon scale. 11. Essex board measure. 
12. History of framing square. 13. Plumb and level. 
14. Marking gauge. 15. Mortise gauge. 16. Gauge 
attachment. 17. Dividers or compasses. 18. Calipers. 
19. Wire gauge. 20. Sloyd knife. 21. Socket firmer- 
chisel. 22. Tang firmer-chisel. 23. Corner chisel. 
24. Gouge. 25. Wood-turning tools. 26. Wood-carv- 
ing tools. 27. Planes. 28. Spokeshave. 29. Metal 
snips. 30. Saws and their construction. 31. Rip 
saw. 32. How to sharpen a rip saw. 33. Cross-cut saw. 
34. How to sharpen a cross-cut saw. • 35. Back saw. 
36. Bracket saw. 37. Hack saw. 38. Miter box. 39. Files. 
40. Wood rasps. 41. File cleaner. 42. Auger. 43. Auger 
bits. 44. Short auger or dowel bits. 45. Wood drills. 
46. Gimlet bits. 47. Auger bit gauge. 48. Counter- 
sink. 49. Brace or bit brace. 50. Screw-driver. 
51. Screw-driver bit. 52. Screw and plug bit. 53. Plug 
cutter. 54. Hand screw. 55. Screw clamp. 56. Ad- 
justable steel bar clamp. 57. Stationary iron vise. 
58. Wrench. 59. Flat nose plier. 60. Round nose 

xi 



Xll CONTENTS 

PAGE 

plier. 61. Saw vise. 62. Picture frame vise. 63. Ham- 
mer. 64. Mallet. 65. Anvil. 66. Nail set. 67. Belt 
punch. 68. Carver's punch. 69. Grindstone. 70. Oil 
stone. 71. Carborundum stones. 72. How to sharpen 
edge tools. 73. Cabinet scraper. 74. Oiler. 75. Bench 
brush. 76. Handles. 77. Steel letters and figures. 
78. Trimmer. 

PART II 

Woodworking Machines . 99 

79. Work. 80. Energy. 81. Power. 82. Band saw. 
83. Scroll saw. 84. Swing saw. 85. Combination saw 
bench. 86. Saw guard. 87. Circular saws. 88. The 
speed of circular saws. 89. Rules for calculating the 
speed of saws, pulleys, and drums. 90. Single surfacer. 
91. Jointer. 92. Wood-turning lathe. 93. Belts. 
94. Formulae used in selecting belts. 95. Belt lacings. 
96. Old style lace. 97. New style lace. 98. Single 
hinge lace. 99. Double hinge lace. 100. Belt hooks. 



PART III 

Wood (Outline Study) 119 

I. Classification of trees as to kinds of leaves and 
structure of wood. II. Composition of wood. III. De- 
cay of trees. IV. Lumbering. V. Properties of wood, 
tables and laws. 



PART IV 

Fastening Devices used in Wood Construction. . 129 

Nails and nailing. The screw as a fastening device in 
wood construction. Glue. Glue heaters. Wood fasten- 
ings (dowels, pins, cleats, keys, and wedges). 



CONTENTS Xlll 



PART V 

PAGE 

Wood Finishing 149 

Aims. Pale tints in oil. Deep tints in oil. Stains. 
Varnishes. Shellacs. Fillers. Specifications for finishes. 



PART VI 

Exercises 163 

Knife work for schools without shops. Drawings. 
Instructions. Bench work, involving joinery and cabi- 
net making. Drawings and instructions. 

PART VII 

Wood Turning 215 

History. Tools. Uses and care of tools. Instructions 
and drawings. 

Appendix A : Key to the More Important Woods of North 

America 233 

Appendix B : Problems in Construction and Geometric 

Helps 283 

Appendix C : Useful Tables 293 



EDUCATIONAL WOODWORKING FOR 
HOME AND SCHOOL 

INTRODUCTION 

Manual Training: What it is and its Place in 

Education 

Manual Training is a term used extensively by edu- 
cators in denning a part of a system of general education. 
One would infer from the term "manual," meaning hand, 
that this branch of education is the training of the hand, 
but it is more than this. Not all that is done with the 
hand is manual training in the school sense of the term. 
In laboratory work in physics and chemistry the hand is 
trained to use apparatus in a skillful way, but this is 
not considered as manual training. Manual training is a 
general term which signifies the expressing of ideas in 
things by means of tools in working with such materials 
as paper, cardboard, clay, wood, iron, brass, copper, 
tin, etc. Manual training does not include work with 
apparatus, neither is its purpose to teach a trade. 

Man is by nature a "tool-using animal " and has been 
so from remote periods of antiquity. Let us stop to 
consider briefly how much of the history of mankind is 
written in the tools that have come down to us. We 
look at the pens made of reeds which were used by the 



2 EDUCATIONAL WOODWORKING 

ancient Egyptians and a series of facts are revealed 
by means of those tools which were used by man more 
than four thousand years ago. Axes made of stone, 
copper, bronze, etc., are dug out of the earth, and each 
tells a different story of the life of savage peoples of 
antiquity. The story of man's development is written in 
his tools just as plainly as the histoiy of our earth is 
written in the rocks. 

It is almost impossible to conceive of man without 
tools, yet in the beginning of human existence he had no 
tools. He was naked and without food and fire, living 
in caves and hollow trees, searching for fallen nuts under 
the trees and for fish and game in the streams and moun- 
tains. He was ever hiding from stronger animals and 
always seeking an opportunity to attack weaker ones. 

Some one has wisely said that human culture began 
with fire, but no one has said when fire was first used by 
man. Doubtless some rude tools were invented before 
fire was discovered, and these tools probably led to the 
discovery of fire. With fire came protection and comfort. 
It drove away the fierce animals, which were afraid of 
fire; it protected man from cold. The weaker members 
of the family were left by the fireside while the stronger 
ones went out in search of food. 

But man needed more than fire for his protection, for 
he was one of the weakest of animals. In expressing the 
weakness of man in this early period, Katharine Elizabeth 
Dopp * says : " He could not run as fast as the horse, swim 
as well as the fish, fly as the eagle, crawl as the serpent, or 

1 " The Place of Industries in Elementary Education," p. 19, 
The University of Chicago Press. 



FOR HOME AND SCHOOL 6 

render himself inconspicuous by changing his color to cor- 
respond with the natural objects with which he habitually 
came in contact, or by maintaining such a control of his 
muscles as the wild calf and other animals do when they 
remain motionless in order to be unobserved. He was 
not protected with armor as the turtle is, with a thick 
skin as the rhinoceros, with a heavy coat as the mam- 
moth, or with feathers and fur as the birds and beasts 
of prey. In his conflicts he could not strike as the 
cave bear, kick as the horse, crush as the rhinoceros, gore 
as the urus, or pierce and rend as the tiger. In the 
exercise of his senses and in muscular force he was sur- 
passed by many of them." What man needed most in 
his weak condition was tools, and being endowed with 
intelligence he was able to construct them, although 
very crude ones, out of the materials at his command. 
At first his hands and teeth were substitutes for tools. 
His first constructed tool was the hammer. This he 
may have used in opening the shells of oysters, nuts, 
etc. In combat he fought at close range and therefore 
his blows were weak. Later he found that by using a 
club as a hammer he could strike a harder blow and thus 
slay even much stronger animals than himself. Still 
later it became necessary for man to fight at long range, 
and out of this necessity grew the need of, and therefore 
the invention of, the bow and arrow — tools of great 
utility among primitive people. 

The development of the bow and arrow was a great 
step in man's advancement, for at long range he could kill 
large animals, which furnished materials for food and 
clothing. In making and operating the bow and arrow 



4 EDUCATIONAL WOODWORKING 

man developed physically and mentally. Many problems 
came up in the construction and use of these tools, the 
solution of which demanded the activity of reason. In 
making the bow there was the kind of wood to be con- 
sidered, when it should be cut, the seasoning of the 
timber, the shape and length of the bow. In making 
the string for the bow and in making the arrows other 
problems arose, all of which were carefully worked out in 
the course of time. 

Among some of the Indian tribes of to-day certain 
rules regarding the bow and arrow which were worked 
out centuries ago are still in use. Of course, a boy 
could not use a bow that was made for a man, and two 
men differing in physical strength could not well use the 
same bow; so a difference in the size and strength of the 
individual led to modifications of these tools so that they 
could meet the requirements of each individual. Each 
individual made his own bow and arrow, and in making 
them certain units of measurement were and are still 
employed. The Indian hunter in making his bow does 
not use a standard length; the bow must be exactly 
eight times the span from the thumb to the little finger 
of the hunter using it, and the length of the arrow must 
be exactly the distance from the armpit to the end of 
the thumb, measuring on the inside of the extended 
arm. Similar methods were employed in the making 
of all tools. In writing of the bow and arrow, Thomas 
AYilson * says : " The bow and arrow was the greatest of all 
human inventions — greatest in that it marked man's first 
step in mechanics, greatest in adaptation of means to the 

1 Smithsonian Report, 1894, p. 980. 



FOR HOME AND SCHOOL 5 

end, and as an invented machine it manifested in the most 
practical and marked manner the intellectual and reason- 
ing power of man, and his superiority over the brute crea- 
tion. It, more than any other weapon, demonstrates the 
triumph of man over the brute, recognizing the limitations 
of human physical capacity in contests with his enemies 
and the capture of his game." His necessity demanded 
the bow and arrow, and this led to its construction and 
use. As man increased his variety of tools, he was grad- 
ually lifted to a higher plane of civilization. 

Economists have classified the activities of the race 
into three main divisions, as follows: First, the house 
industries, or the period of domestic economy, which 
lasted from the earliest times until the beginning of 
towns in the tenth century. Second, the period of town 
economy, or the period of handicrafts, extending from the 
tenth century to the beginning of modern times. Third, 
the period of national economy, or the age of machinery 
and the factory, in which we now live. In passing 
through these activities many stages are represented. 
We note the hunting stage, the fishing stage, the pastoral 
stage, the agricultural stage, the age of metals, the stage 
of trade, travel, and transportation, the city state, the feu- 
dal system, the handicraft system, and the factory system. 

It is believed that the child in the course of its develop- 
ment passes through practically all of the stages that 
the race has passed through, and manual training in the 
home and in the school helps to supply the needs of the 
child in passing through the different stages of his devel- 
opment. Manual training not only helps the child to 
appreciate the activities of life of to-day, but it also shows 



6 EDUCATIONAL WOODWORKING 

the relation between the activities of the past and the 
present. Manual training deals with life, and is one of 
the serious considerations in the history of child develop- 
ment. In Carl Bucher's "Industrial Evolution" 1 he 
writes : "After all, the comforting result of every serious 
consideration of history is, that no single element of 
culture which has once entered into the life of men is 
lost, that even after the hour of its predominance has 
expired it continues in some more modest position to 
cooperate in the realization of the great end in which we 
all believe, the helping of mankind toward more and 
more perfect forms of existence." 

The rough highway between the aboriginal and 
man has been paved by means of the seven hand tools — 
the hammer, the axe, the saw, the plane, the square, 
the chisel, and the file. The influence of tools upon 
civilization is expressed most graphically by Carlyle in 
these words: "Man is a tool-using animal. He can use 
tools, can devise tools; with these the granite mountains 
melt into light dust before him; he kneads iron as if it 
were soft paste; seas are his smooth highways, winds and 
fire his unwearying steeds. 

" Nowhere do we find him without tools; without 
tools he is nothing, with tools he is all." 

In early times, before the institutions of society be- 
came so complex and so far reaching in their demands 
and influences, the home was one of the most potent 
factors in education. In rural communities to-day and 
in the best regulated homes wherever they may be this 
institution is still a powerful influence in the cause of 

1 Page 184. 



FOR HOME AND SCHOOL 7 

education. The homes of our ancestors were made by 
men and women of great practical efficiency and this 
efficiency was imparted to the rising generation largely 
through the influences of the home. In speaking of the 
influence and efficiency of men and women in early times, 
Henry Turner Bailey, in " The Arts and Crafts in the 
Public Schools/' * says: — 

" The Man. — Cleared land, cut wood, made rails and 
posts, built stone walls; built barns and sheds, made 
simple furniture and farm utensils, involving carpentry, 
blacksmithing, and painting; cared for bees, poultry, 
sheep, cattle, horses ; could break colts and steers ; milk, 
shear sheep, butcher ; could plow, plant, cultivate and 
harvest vegetables ; sow, mow, reap, thresh, and winnow 
grain; could read the sky, tell birds, wild animals, 
insects, and common plants and trees at sight ; could 
plant, prune, and graft trees; make maple sirup and 
vinegar, cure ham and bacon; fish, trap, and hunt 
successfully; make shoes, harnesses, and simple tools; 
weave baskets; make kites, bow guns, darts, whistles, 
etc., for the children; repair anything; shave himself; 
make a telling speech at town meeting. 

" The Woman. — Understood all phases of house- 
work, sweeping, dusting, washing, ironing; could cook, 
make yeast, soap, candles, butter, cheese, sausages, pre- 
serves of all sorts, candy, wines, and cordials; could 
spin yarn from wool and thread from flax; dye and 
knit, weave and embroider; shrink cloth, bleach cloth; 

1 An address before The American Institute of Instruction at 
New Haven, Conn., July, 1906. Published in the January, 1907, 
School Arts Book, The Davis Press, Worcester, Mass. 



8 EDUCATIONAL WOODWORKING 

cut out and make ordinary garments, darn, and mend 
anything well; braid rugs, paper a room, cut hair; 
gather medicinal herbs, nurse the sick, rear children; 
manage a flower garden, have potted plants bloom all 
winter indoors; milk, make hay, and have all the 
children clean and neatly dressed at church on time, 
Sunday morning." 

The average home of to-day has not the discipline which 
gives the efficiency that the old home life used to give, 
and this naturally puts greater responsibility on the 
schools of to-day which are called upon to provide ade- 
quate training in hand work, training that formerly was 
given in the home. Industry has always been a domi- 
nant force in the upbuilding of all social structures. 
Nowhere is this seen more clearly than in child develop- 
ment. Professor O'Shea, in speaking of the child's 
first absorbing interest which is based upon industrial 
activity, says : * " In the earliest years the pupil's chief 
interest is in constructive activity. If he be given free- 
dom to do as he chooses, and suitable equipment, by far 
the larger part of his time will be spent in construction, 
in imitation of the activities going on about him. If he 
has blocks, he will be building; if paper and scissors, he 
will be cutting; if sand, he will be modeling; if tools, 
he will be framing a box or a house or what not; all, of 
course, in a crude, imperfect way." These constructive 
activities, as Professor Dewey expresses it, 2 " evoke and 
direct what is most fundamental and vital in the child, 

1 In " Dynamic Factors in Education," New York, 1906, p. 59. 
(Macmillan.) 

2 In Manual Training Magazine, July, 1901, page 97. 



FOR HOME AND SCHOOL 9 

that in which he is the heir of all the ages, and through 
which he recapitulates the progress of the race. It was 
certainly a gain for educational theory and practice when 
appeal to personal and immediate sense perception dis- 
placed reliance upon symbols and abstract ideas. But, 
after all, to have sensations, to receive impressions 
through sight or hearing, is not the ultimate thing. To 
do, to perform, to execute, to make, to control and 
direct activity — it is for the sake of such things that 
perceptions and impressions exist. Indeed, to see and 
to hear is more than to have impressions ; to see and to 
hear is to do, to do in cooperation with head, arm, hand, 
and leg." 

In writing along this line, showing the child's interests 
in the activities of life, Dr. Grant Karr says, 1 " Another 
one of these centers is the child's occupations. From 
the day of his birth he has been doing things and has had 
the unalloyed pleasure of accomplishing things. He 
has been making things, at first in response to an impulse 
to act and then later in order to realize an ideal. He 
has been using hands and feet, arms and legs, eyes and 
ears, mouth and nose and all his members, in satisfying 
his wants and needs. From this action and accom- 
plishment, he has profited immensely, for he has not only 
been making and learning 'things ' in the outside world, 
but he has been building up a structure within, 'a 
house not made with hands, eternal in the heavens/ 
the temple of his soul. If his life is to amount to a great 
deal, this center of his occupations will never diminish 

1 In "The Means of Education," Journal of Pedagogy, March, 
1905. 



10 EDUCATIONAL WOODWORKING 

in strength, but will rather grow in complexity and finer 
organization until his power to do will be greatly in- 
creased and his influence be enlarged not only in his own 
day and generation, but with the generations that are 
yet to come. It is so in the great world, for we see on 
every hand the doers, the men of affairs and influence. 

' Men, my brothers, men the workers, ever reaping some- 
thing new, 

That which they have done but earnest of the things that 
they shall do.' 

The inventors, the scholars, the servants, the ministers 
and teachers, doctors and lawyers, captains of industry, 
bankers and business men of all sorts, reformers, toilers 
and labor leaders, and all successful men are all ex- 
amples of those who, like the little child, do, and do, and 
still DO. They organize their deeds into power, with 
which they do still greater deeds. This interest is also 
universal and eternal." 

Colonel Francis W. Parker, in showing the value of 
expression, said : 1 " Evolution has brought us the funda- 
mental doctrine of all thinking, of all discoveries in 
science, indeed of all progress. A human being is the 
product of countless generations, reaching down into the 
beginnings of animal life. The fundamental law of 
evolution is self -activity. . . . Education is evolution 
assisted; when man began to help his fellow to grow in 
body, mind, and soul, education began. We have had 

1 In "Expression in Its Relation to Education," a paper read 
before the Eastern Manual Training Association, in Buffalo, June, 
1901. 



FOR HOME AND SCHOOL 11 

the doctrine of the survival of the fittest, but now comes 
the doctrine of fitting every one to survive. The agents 
of expression must have that exercise, determined by the 
nature of the body and its growth, which will develop the 
body as an instrument of the will and make it responsive 
to the will. . . . 

" Without expression growth is absolutely impossible. 
One kind of expression alone means attenuation. All- 
sided expression is the foundation of complete living. 

"The child enters into the industrial, commercial 
activity and the life of the world through his hands and 
his brain. He has very little interest, in general, in 
things outside his immediate environment, until that 
interest is stimulated through the work of his hands. 
To illustrate : Work m wood means images of woodwork, 
realization of images, interest in all things made of wood, 
from the simple box to the magnificent structure. The 
child cannot make an article of furniture without always 
being more or less interested in furniture." 

Quoting again from Colonel Parker, 1 " Making, or 
manual training, has done more for the human race than 
the exercise of any, if not all, of the other modes of expres- 
sion. It is absolutely indispensable to normal physical 
development ; it has had a mighty influence upon brain 
building ; it has cultivated ethics as a basis of all moral 
growth." 

The thought that manual training when properly 

taught and applied helps to make the pupil a critic of 

all woodwork and cultivates his aesthetic taste cannot be 

overestimated. A piece of furniture, or any article for 

1 In " Talks on Pedagogics," page 253. 



12 EDUCATIONAL WOODWORKING 

that matter, to be artistic must be made in such a way 
that its attractions consist in (1) strength, (2) purity of 
outline, and (3) capacity to fill adequately the functions 
for which it should be constructed. As Gustav Stickley * 
puts it, the two fundamental principles are simplicity 
and adaptability to purpose. On this point of con- 
struction Dr. James P. Haney, Director of Manual Train- 
ing, New York City, says, " The best construction 
necessarily includes artistic elements, i.e. soundness of 
structure, propriety of material, suitability to purpose, 
good proportions, and good relationships." Manual 
training projects to be successful must be worked out 
with these ideas of construction in mind. 

Professor James 2 says : — 

" The most colossal improvement which recent years 
have seen in secondary education lies in the introduc- 
tion of manual training schools; not because they will 
give us a people more handy and practical for domestic 
life and better skilled in trades, but because they will 
give us citizens with an entirely different intellectual 
fiber. 

" Laboratory work and shop work engender a habit 
of observation. They confer precision ; because, if you 
are doing a thing, you must do it definitely right or 
definitely wrong. They give honesty; for, when you 
express yourself by making things, and not by using 
words, it becomes impossible to dissimulate your vague- 
ness or ignorance by ambiguity. They beget a habit 

1 Editor and publisher of The Craftsman, New York and 
Syracuse. 

2 In " Talks to Teachers," page 35. 



FOR HOME AND SCHOOL 13 

of self-reliance, they keep the interest and attention 
always cheerfully engaged, and reduce the teacher's 
disciplinary functions to a minimum." 

In this connection Scripture 1 says: " 1. Manual 
training develops the intellectual side of the mind as 
nothing else can. 2. Manual training develops char- 
acter as nothing else can. 3. Manual training fur- 
nishes the pupil with real knowledge; it teaches him 
something. The laboratory method — the method of 
learning by doing — is after all the only method of learn- 
ing anything, whether it be drawing, or Greek, or 
chemistry, or mathematics. The attempt to commit 
facts to memory by reading books is hopeless. What 
is memorized in this way fades in a short time, leaving 
little or no trace." "Two of the direct results of art 
instruction and manual training," as Professor Charles 
A. Bennett 2 puts it, " are, first, power to do, and, 
second, ability to appreciate what is done by others." 

The importance of industrial work as a subject which 
helps to give definite ideas of the value of toil and the 
real worth of things that are made by the sweat of the 
brow cannot be overestimated. The rich boy works 
along with the poor boy, each endeavoring to produce 
something which will express tangible results. Manual 
training work to be valuable must be strenuous. Boys 
must be made to plane and saw and sweat. They must 
produce shavings that have the artistic curl of the crafts- 

1 Edward W. Scripture, in " Manual Training and Mental De- 
velopment," Manual Training Magazine, October, 1899, page 25. 

2 In " The Development of Appreciation," Manual Training 
Magazine, January, 1907. 



14 EDUCATIONAL WOODWORKING 

man, not meaningless chips. Shopwork should give 
ability to plan and execute work according to good 
technique. " The capacity for work/' as Dr. Bagley 1 
expresses it, " is the capacity for sustained effort. It 
means concentration, organization, and permanency of 
purpose. The intense desire for activity is not in itself 
sufficient. Children and savages possess this in great 
abundance. Not activity alone, but sustained and 
directed activity, has been the keynote of human prog- 
ress." 

Through industrial efforts in education and through 
other influences at work in the world to-day the time may 
come when intellect and manual labor will be united. 
John Ruskin said : " We are always in these days 
endeavoring to separate intellect and manual labor; 
we want one man to be always thinking, and another 
to be always working, and we call one a gentleman, 
and the other an operative; whereas the workman 
ought often to be thinking and the thinker often to 
be working, and both should be gentlemen in the best 
sense. As it is, we make both ungentle, the one envy- 
ing, the other despising, his brother ; and the mass of 
society is made up of morbid thinkers and miserable 
workers." 

William Morris expresses the same truth in these 
words: "I had thought that civilization meant the 
attainment of peace and order and freedom, of good- 
will between man and man, of the love of truth and 
the hatred of injustice, and, by consequence, the 
attainment of the good life which these things breed, 

1 In " The Educative Process," New York, 1907, page 102. 



zu. i/iiauuer pjamug. 

21. Gluing. 

22. Using screws. 

23. Sharpening edged tools. 



ill. UUICVY VjllUllJf. 

25. Bar clamp. 

26. Mallet. 

27. Nail set. 





24. Review. 


28. Review. 


25. Kinds of joints, their 


29. Planes. 


uses and construction. 
26. Selected operations. 


30. Framing square. 

31. Level. 

32. Calipers. 

33. Wire and screw gauge. 




34. Turning tools. 




35. Carving tools. 

36. Miter box. 




37. Pliers. 




38. Grindstone. 




39. Oilstone and slips. 


)tional) 



27. Review. 

28. Paneling. 

29. Doweling. 

30. Use of cabinet scraper. 

31. Saw sharpening. 

32. Truing grindstone. 

33. Truing oilstone. 



40. Review. 

41. Trimmer. 

42. Screw and plug bit. 

43. Plug cutter. 

44. Anvil. 

45. Iron vise and saw vise. 

46. Picture frame vise. 

47. Belt punches. 

48. Woodworking ma- 

chines. 



SCHEDULE OF WORK 



Required Projects 



Optional Projects 



Topics for Study 



Technical Operations 



Sixth Grade (one hour per week) 



1. Match strike, Fig. 151. 

2. Match box, Fig. 154. 

3. Whisk broom holder, Fig. 155. 

4. Practice exercises (if necessary) . 



1. Measuring and lining, Fig. 150. 

2. Match strike, Fig. 153. 

3. Plant marker, Fig. 178. 

4. Bed marker, Fig. 178. 



1. Basswood. 

2. Sandpaper. 



Seventh Grade (two hours per week) 



5. Shelf, Fig. 156. 

6. Coat hanger, Fig. 157. 

7. Bread-cutting board, Fig. 159. 

8. Toothbrush holder and shelf, Fig. 160. 

9. Towel roller, Figs. 161 and 162. 

10. Book rack, Figs. 163 and 164. 

11. Key rack, Fig. 168. 

12. Practice exercises (if necessary) . 



5. Combination coat and trousers hanger, 

Fig. 158. 

6. Mantel shelf, Fig. 187. 

7. Inkstand, Fig. 176. 

8. Windmill vane, Fig. 202. 

9. Book rack, Fig. 193. 

10. Footstool, Fig. 194. 

11. Floor broom holder, Fig. 197. 

12. Towel roller, Fig. 180. 



3. Review. 

4. English measure. 

5. Brads and nails. 

6. Glue. 

7. Burnt umber. 

8. Burnt sienna. 

9. Shellac. 

10. Varnish. 

11. Wood (outline 

study) , topics 
under I, II, III, 
and IV. 



1. Measuring. 

2. Lining. 

3. Cutting with knife. 

4. Sharpening of knife. 

5. How to use sandpaper. 



Review. 

Making and using a 

working corner. 
Sawing with back saw, 

cross-cut and rip saw. 
Planing — face, edge and 

end. 
Ellipse. 
Squaring. 
Gauging. 

Perpendicular chiseling. 
Oblique chiseling. 
Perpendicular gouging. 
Oblique gouging, 
Scroll sawing. 
Modeling with knife. 
Boring. 

Chamfer planing. 
Gluing. 
Using screws. 
Sharpening edged tools. 



Tools 



1. Uses. 

2. Name of parts. 

3. Adjustments. 

4. Care of. 

5. How to sharpen. 



1. Whittling tray. 

2. Rule. ■ 

3. Try-square. 

4. Compasses. 

5. Sloyd knife. 

6. Hammer. 



7. Review. 

8. Bench. 

9. Marking gauge. 

10. Mortise gauge. 

11. Bevel. 

12. Back saw. 

13. Cross-cut saw. 

14. Rip saw. 

15. Bracket saw. 

16. Hack saw. 

17. Spokeshave. 

18. Brace. 

19. Auger bits. 

20. Countersink. 

21. Screw-driver. 

22. Chisels and gouges. 

23. Hand screw. 

24. Screw clamp. 

25. Bar clamp. 

26. Mallet. 

27. Nail set. 





Eighth Grade (two hours per week) 






13. Whisk broom holder, Fig. 165. 


13. Picture frame, Fig. 169. 


12. Review. 


24. Review. 


28. Review. 


14. Blotter pad, Fig. 166. 


14. Counting board, Fig. 170. 


13. Screws. 


25. Kinds of joints, their 


29. Planes. 


15. Knife box, Fig. 182. 


15. Book rack, Fig. 171. 


14. Metric system. 


uses and construction. 


30. Framing square. 


16. Camp stool, Fig. 174. 


16. Sweet pea rack, Fig. 191. 


15. Rafter table. 


26. Selected operations. 


31. Level. 


17. Book rack, Figs. 195 and 183. 


17. Footstool, Fig. 188. 


16. Brace measure. 




32. Calipers. 


18. Practice exercises (if necessary). 


18. Umbrella rack, Fig. 201. 


17. Octagon scale. 




33. Wire and screw gauge. 


19. Wood-turning exercises. 


19. Brush broom holder, Fig. 165. 


18. Board measure. 




34. Turning tools. 




20. Jardiniere stand, Fig. 196. 


19. Wood (outline 

study) , topics 
under V. 

20. Work with key. 

21. Wood finishing. 




35. Carving tools. 

36. Miter box. 

37. Pliers. 

38. Grindstone. 








39. Oilstone and slips. 



20. Practice exercises. 

21. Selected projects. 

22. Wood-turning exercises. 



High School (five hours per week — number of weeks optional) 



21. Chessboard, Fig. 190. 

22. Box, Fig. 172. 

23. Folding screens, Fig. 189. 

24. Combination desk and bookcase, Fig. 203. 

25. Towel rack, Fig. 175. 

26. Bookcase, Figs. 192 and 184. 

27. Corner medicine shelf, Fig. 181. 

28. Plate rack, Fig. 199. 

29. Dutch plate rack, Fig. 186. 

30. Magazine rack, Fig. 200. 

31. Picture frames, Fig. 198. 

32. Sleeve board, Fig. 179. 

33. Tabourets, Figs. 185, 177, and 173. 

34. Picture frame, Fig. 169. 

35. Sawing exercise, Fig. 204. 

36. End dovetail joint, Fig. 205. 

37. Half dovetail joint, Fig. 206. 

38. Through mortise-and-tenon joint, Fig. 207. 



22. Review. 

23. Circular saws. 

24. Machines. 

25. Belts. 

26. Wood finishing. 

27. Carborundum. 



27. Review. 

28. Paneling. 

29. Doweling. 

30. Use of cabinet scraper. 

31. Saw sharpening. 

32. Truing grindstone. 

33. Truing oilstone. 



40. Review. 

41. Trimmer. 

42. Screw and plug bit. 

43. Plug cutter. 

44. Anvil. 

45. Iron vise and saw \ i"'. 

46. Picture frame vise. 

47. Belt punches. 

48. Woodworking ma- 

chines. 



FOR HOME AND SCHOOL 15 

a life free from craven fear, but full of incident ; that 
was what I thought it meant, not more stuffed chairs 
and more cushions, and more carpets and gas, and 
more dainty meat and drink — and therewithal more 
and sharper differences between class and class." 

Suggestions to Students 

1. Provide yourselves with a serviceable apron, or 
something that will protect your clothing from being- 
soiled. 

2. If your locker has a combination lock, learn that 
combination as soon as possible. Always keep your 
locker locked when you are not working. 

3. There is a place in your bench for each tool. When 
you finish your work each day, see that each tool is in its 
proper place in the bench. Also, see that the top of 
your bench is clean. Order and neatness are very impor- 
tant factors in the formation of desirable habits. 

4. Always stand at your bench while you work. Do 
not sit while working, for you cannot get good results. 
We must have concentrated and strenuous efforts in 
order to get the most out of this work. 

5. Do not make mistakes. Mistakes always waste 
time and materials. Work carefully, thoughtfully, and 
accurately. Let the last piece of work be the best that 
you have done. 

6. When you begin a new exercise, say to yourself: 
" Using all of my powers, I will strive to make this piece 
of work as nearly perfect as possible." Remember that 
it is the product (that which you produce) that counts 



16 EDUCATIONAL WOODWORKING 

when your worth is estimated. In any vocation or 
calling in life these questions are always asked: "What 
can you do ? How well can you do that thing ? " Form 
the habit now of doing everything well. 

7. Try to get some tools of your own, as soon as you 
can, so that you can work at home. In every home some 
place can be found where a bench can be placed. Have 
a little workroom of your own where you can "make 
things " after school, or on rainy Saturdays. Hundreds 
of boys have "shops " in the attic, down by the furnace, 
in vacant rooms, in the barn, or even in the back kitchen. 
Have such a place in which to work. It will pay you 
in the end. 

8. Find out all that you can about tools, — kinds of 
tools, uses of tools, and care of tools. Learn the names 
of all of the parts of each tool. Learn all of the adjust- 
ments of each tool. Always keep your tools sharp. 

9. Study to find out all that you possibly can about 
all of the materials that you are using, such as woods, 
screws, nails, glue, stains, etc. Each has interesting 
matter connected with its use and history. 

10. Call tools by their proper names. Use proper 
language in describing the different processes. Use all 
of the technical terms that are most commonly used, 
and see that you use them correctly. Get a few good 
books and magazines on the work, if you can. Your 
teacher will gladly recommend good books to you. 

11. Remember that you are not doing this work to 
learn a trade, yet you should strive to do just as good 
work as an artisan. The purpose of this work for you is 
to help lay a good foundation for your general education. 



FOR HOME AND SCHOOL 



17 



TOOL LIST* 



BENCH NO. 



I. Measuring, 


Marking, 


AND 


IV. Boring Tools. 




Testing 


Tools. 








Price 






Price 


Bit brace, 


No. 


$1.25 


Metric rule, 


No. 


$.10 


Auger bit 4 -inch, 


No. 


.25 


2-ft. rule, 


No. 


.15 


Auger bit §-inch, 


No. 


.35 


Try-square, 


No. 


.30 


Auger bit |-inch, 


No. 


.40 


Bevel, 


No. 


.30 


Auger bit f-inch, 


No. 


.50 


Marking gauge, 


No. 


.40 


Countersink, 


No. 


.15 


Mortise gauge, 


No. 


.60 


Screw-driver bit, 


No. 


.10 


Dividers, 


No. 


.30 








II. Edge Tools. 














Price 








Chisel 1-inch, 


No. 


$.60 








Chisel f-inch, 


No. 


.55 


V. Pounding Tools 




Chisel 3-inch, 


No. 


.50 






Price 


Chisel f-inch, 


No. 


.45 


Hammer, 


No. 


$.60 


Chisel |-inch, 


No. 


.40 


Mallet, 


No. 


.50 


Chisel |-inch, 


No. 


.35 








Chisel 4-inch, 


No. 


.30 








Chisel g-inch, 


No. 


.25 








Sloyd knife, 


No. 


.40 








Jack plane, 


No. 


1.25 








Fore plane, 


No. 


1.35 


VI. Extras. 


Price 


Smoothing plane, 


No. 


1.00 


Cabinet scraper, 


No. 


$.10 


III. Tooth Tools. 




Oilstone, 


No. 


.75 






Price 


Oil can, 


No. 


.25 


Rip saw, 


No. 


$1.50 


Nail set, 


No. 


.10 


Cross-cut saw, 


No. 


1.50 


Screw-driver, 


No. 


.25 


Back saw, 


No. 


1.00 


Bench brush, 


No. 


.35 



*1. Number each tool. 2. Tools not numbered, mark thus [X], 
3. Missing tools, mark thus [O]. 4. Broken tools, mark thus [B]. 

I have received the tools as indicated above and agree to take good care 
of them while I am a member of the class. If I should lose or break a 
tool, I agree to pay for the same at the close of the term. 



Signature of Student 



Date. 



18 EDUCATIONAL WOODWORKING 

12. " Which habit do you want to form — 

Carefulness or Carelessness ? 
Neatness or Slovenliness ? 
Attention or Heedlessness? 
Accuracy or Errancy ? 
Honesty or Deception ? 
Economy or Wastefulness? 
Industry or Idleness? 
Success or Failure ? " l 

13. If there are enough individual benches for each 
student, an official record should be made of the tools in 
the bench equipment and the student should be held 
responsible for those tools as well as for the care of the 
bench. In keeping this record forms similar to the one 
on the preceding page should be used. The instructor 
and student should fill two forms for each bench, the 
student keeping one form and the instructor the other. 

Technical Terms 

1. "Blue Print." — A drawing which has been made 
by the blue print process is called a "blue print." 

2. Stock. — Rough lumber which has been cut to 
approximate sizes for class use is called stock. 

3. Working Face. — A surface of a block of wood that 
has been planed perfectly flat, so that it will lie flat on 
a flat surface without rocking, is called a working face. 
It is the surface from which the other surfaces are trued. 
It is the surface from which measurements are started. 

1 Croc T. Work, " Outlines of Manual Training," San Francisco 
Public Schools, Teachers' Edition, 1903, page 38. 



FOR HOME AND SCHOOL 19 

4. Bottom. --The surface of a block of wood opposite 
the working face is called the bottom. 

5. Front Edge. — The edge nearest the observer is 
called the front edge. This edge is squared from the 
working face and is perpendicular to it. 

6. Back Edge. — The edge farthest from the observer 
is the back edge. This edge is also squared from the 
working face and is perpendicular to it. 

7. Right End. — The end of the block of wood at the 
right of the observer is called the right end. It is per- 
pendicular to the working face, bottom, and edges. 

8. Left End. — The end of the block of wood at the 
left of the observer is called the left end. It is per- 
pendicular to the working face, bottom, and edges. 

9. " Square" or "true a Block." — To plane a block 
of wood so that the working face and bottom are parallel 
to each other and perpendicular to the ends and edges 
is called " squaring " or " truing a block of wood." 

10. "Lay out Work." — To draw lines on wood which 
represent the form of the different parts of the object 
and to show the waste parts to be cut away are known 
as "laying out work." 

11. "Dress down a Surface." — To plane perfectly 
smooth, or to plane a block to desired thickness is called 
"dressing down a surface." 

12. "Grain," "Across the Grain," "With the Grain," 
and "Against the Grain." — These terms refer to the 
direction of the fibers in the wood that is being worked. 

13. "Object," "Model," or "Project." — These terms 
are used in naming that which is to be constructed. 
The term "model " should be used when the object to be 



20 EDUCATIONAL WOODWORKING 

constructed is to be made from a drawing or design of 
another person. When the pupil designs or helps to 
design the object to be made, then the term "project " 
should be used. The term "object " may take the place 
of the terms "model" or "project." At the present 
time the term 'project" is tho most popular term. 
These terms may also be defined as follows: — 

Object: The name of anything to be 4 constructed. It 
may be constructed from a model, from a drawing 
designed by another, or it may be constructed from a 
drawing made and designed by the teacher and pupil 
together. 

Model: ''Anything o{ a particular form, shape, or 
construction, intended for imitation." —Webster. 

Project: "A project is something o( a practical na- 
ture thrown out for consideration as to its being done.' 1 
— Webster. 

II. "Scribe." — To draw a line parallel to a straight 
line, or to draw a curved line from a curved edge, using 
compasses or dividers, is called "scribing." 

15. "Checks." — ("racks in wood extending radially 
and following pith rays are called " checks." 

lb. "Coarse-grained." — Trees in which the annual 
lings are wide give "coarse-grained" lumber. 

17. "Fine-grained." — Trees in which the annual 
rings are narrow give "fine-grained" lumber which is 
capable oi a high polish. 

IS. "Bird's-eye Maple." — A particular ami beautiful 
contour that is sometimes seen in the grain o( maple 
which has been sawed at a tangent is called "bird's-eye 
maple." 



PART I 

Woodworking Tools 

i. Benches. — One of the most important parts of 
a manual training equipment is the workbench, and it 
should be selected with great care. There; are very 




Fig. 1. — Manual training bench. 

many excellent benches on the market at the; present 
time from which selections can be made One of the 
best in style and make is shown in Fig. 1. It is practi- 
cal, substantial, and complete in every way. The same 
style of a bench may be had in a double bench. A bench 
serves as a working table. It is supplied with devices 

21 



22 



EDUCATIONAL WOODWORKING 



to support and to hold wood that is being worked upon. 
The best benches are provided with cabinets, drawers, 
or racks to hold tools when not in use. The construc- 
tion necessarily depends upon the design of the bench. 
The parts of a bench are the framework, working bed, 
side vise, tail vise, stops, and cabinet, drawers, and rack 
to hold tools. The working bed should be made of the 




Fig. 2. — Cabinetmaker's bench. 

best grade, thoroughly seasoned, hard maple glued up 
in narrow strips to prevent warping. In fact the best 
of materials and workmanship should go into the bench 
in order that it be serviceable and stand the test of 
climatic conditions. 

Fig. 2 shows a cabinetmaker's bench. There should 
be a few of these benches in every shop for use when 
heavy work is done. These benches may also be ob- 
tained with cabinet or drawers underneath. 



FOR HOME AND SCHOOL 23 

A workbench should receive proper care at all times. 
Great care should be exercised in the use of saws and 
chisels and auger bits not to cut or mar the bench. 
At the close of each lesson the vises should be closed, 
the bench and tools should be dusted, and the tools 
should be put away in their proper places so that the 
bench is left perfectly clean and in order. 

Standards of Measure and Tools used in 
Measuring and Testing 

2. English Measure. — The usefulness of a system of 
measure depends upon the unvarying identity of its 
unit together with its terminations. History informs 
us that from the earliest periods of civilization the unit 
of all systems of measure has been fixed by law or cus- 
tom. In early periods there were many systems, and 
the multiplicity of systems of measure naturally led to 
much embarrassment to the commerce of the world. 
To transform values in trade from one system to an- 
other has always been a difficult task in regulating 
trade between nations. 

The term "foot " has been in use for more than 2000 
years, but with different meanings, having its origin in 
the republics of ancient Greece and the Roman Empire. 
Tradition tells us that the Olympic foot was derived 
from the length of the foot of the mythological Hercu- 
les. The Greeks also had several other foot measures 
differing in length. These varying standards of length 
in early periods were the causes of much trouble in the 
exchange of commodities. 



24 EDUCATIONAL WOODWORKING 

The unit of English measure is the yard. It was 
recommended by the Royal Society and became a legal 
standard Jan. 1, 1826. Part of the statute is as follows: 

" The straight line or distance between the centers 
of the two points in the gold studs in the straight 
brass rod now in the custody of the clerk of the House 
of Commons, whereon are the words and figures 
1 Standard Yard, 1760/ shall be, and is hereby de- 
clared to be, the unit, or only measure of extension 
whatsoever, whether the same be linear, superficial, or 
solid, shall be derived, computed, and ascertained." 

In case such standard be lost or injured in any way, 
the act provided that it should be restored by referring 
to the length of "the pendulum vibrating seconds of 
mean time in the latitude of London in a vacuum at 
the level of the sea." The length of this pendulum 
was declared to be 39.1393 inches. 

The House of Parliament was destroyed by fire in 
1834 and the standard yard was lost. A commission 
was appointed in 1838 to restore the standard. The 
commission reported that a standard bar of gun metal, 
38 inches long and 1 inch square, the distance between 
two lines on which, crossing two gold studs, is one yard, 
at 62° F. and 30 inches atmospheric pressure. This 
standard was legalized in 1878. 

In 1814 a brass scale by Troughton, of London, was 
obtained by the United States Coast and 'Geodetic Sur- 
vey. This scale was 82 inches long and the part from 
the 27th to the 63d inch line was adopted as the unit 
of length. In 1830 the United States Treasury Depart- 
ment adopted the Troughton scale as a standard of 



FOR HOME AND SCHOOL 25 

length. The Constitution of the United States pro- 
vides that: — 

" The Congress shall have power to fix the standards 
of weights and measures." (Art. I., Sec. 8, CI. 5.) 

For table of linear measure see Appendix B. 

3. The Metric System. — Some one has said that the 
metric system is a product of the French Revolution. 
By a law passed on Aug. 1, 1793, the metric system 
was established as the only legal standard of weights 
and measures for France and the French possessions. 
The system has since been adopted by Mexico, Brazil, 
Chile, Peru, and by all European nations except 
Russia and Great Britain, and its use is permitted in 
these nations. The population of the countries in 
which this system has been legalized aggregate about 
350,000,000, or about one-fourth the entire popula- 
tion of the earth. Its value and usefulness is in the 
simplicity of its multiples. 

The Metric System was legalized in the United States 
by Congress, July 27, 1866. Part of the act is as follows : 

" The tables in the schedule hereto annexed shall be 
recognized in the construction of contracts, and in all 
legal proceedings, as establishing, in terms of the 
weights and measures now in use in the United 
States, the equivalents of the weights and measures 
expressed therein in terms of the metric system, and the 
tables may lawfully be used for computing, determining, 
and expressing in customary weights and measures the 
weights and measures of the metric system." 

The units of the metric system are as follows : 1. The 
unit of length is the meter. It is nearly the ten-millionth 



26 



EDUCATIONAL WOODWORKING 



part of a quadrant of a meridian, or the distance between 
the equator and a pole. It is also defined as the dis- 
tance between two lines on a platinum-iridium bar at 
zero degree Centigrade. This bar is deposited in the 
International Bureau of Weights and Measures, Paris, 
France. 2. The unit of surface is the are. 3. The 
unit of capacity is the liter. 4. The unit of solidity 
is the stere. 5. The unit of weight is the gram. 

The tables with their values, multiples, and sub- 
multiples referred to in the above act are found in 
Appendix B. 

4. Rule. — A rule is an instrument or tool used in 
measuring. Its graduations are recorded in inches, 




Fig. 3. — Rule. Boxwood, two-feet, four-fold, square joiut, bound. 

halves, quarters, eighths, and sixteenths. For con- 
venience in shop practice, a rule is made to fold, such 
as " fourfold/' "sixfold/' etc. Rules are also made 
in different lengths, but the most common size is the 
2-foot, fourfold length. For accurate measuring a 
rule should be held on its edge against the object to be 
measured, so that the graduations on the rule can be 
located exactly. Rules are usually made of boxwood 
which has been thoroughly seasoned. Some of the 
more expensive rules are made of genuine ivory, but 
these are not practical in a manual training equipment 
on account of their expense. 



FOR HOME AND SCHOOL 



27 



3 



ijijip 



£ 



i|iii|i 



Fig. 4. 



Try-square, a, blade ; 
b, handle. 



5. Try-square. — The try-square is used in laying 
out work and in testing faces, edges, and ends to see that 

they are true. 
In testing a 
block of wood 
to see whether 
a face and an 
edge are true 
or not, the handle of the try-square should 
be placed firmly against the face and then 
slid down until the blade touches an adjoin- 
ing edge. If the face and edge fit the try- 
square perfectly, they are "true " to each other, i.e. they 
form a right angle. The parts of the try-square are the 
blade (a) and handle (b) . These parts are riveted firmly 
together so that they form a right angle. The blade is 
graduated in inches, halves, quarters, and eighths. Try- 
squares may also be obtained graduated in the metric 
system. The blade differs in length from 2 to 12 inches. 




A 6-inch blade is about 
practical purposes. The 
shown in Fig. 4 is nickel- 
die is sometimes made of 
having a brass face plate to 
wood. These 
are more ex- 
pensive than 
nickel-plated FlG 5 _ Bevel ^ blade . 6j handle . 

handles. c, set-screw. 

6. Bevel. — The bevel consists essen- 
tially of a handle (b) with a movable 



the right size for all 

handle of the one 

plated. The han- 

rosewood and 

protect the 




28 



EDUCATIONAL WOODWORKING 



Fig. 6 



. — Framing square (face), a, body or blade ; b, tongue. 

blade (a) which is held in place by a set 
screw (c). It is used in drawing lines at an 
angle with a straight edge and in testing angles. 
The handle and blade are made of the same 
kind of materials as the try-squares. There are 
no gradations on the blade of the bevel. The 
lengths of blades range from 6 to 14 inches. 

7. Framing Square, also called " Square/" 
" Carpenter's Square," and " Steel Square." — 
The framing square consists of a long arm, 
called the body (24 inches long, 2 inches wide), 
and a short arm, called the tongue (16 or 18 
inches long, 1|- inch wide), arranged at right 
angles to each other. On both sides and on 
each edge of the body and tongue are gradua- 
tions used in measuring, testing, and comput- 
ing. Some one has said that the graduations 
and rulings on an ordinary framing square 
number 2571 with 870 figures. The usefulness 
of its graduations makes it a very valuable 
tool. 

The square shown in Fig. 6 was patented 
June 5, 1900, and is very complete and accu- 
rate. It gives the Patent Rafter Table, used in de- 
termining the length of rafters for any one of seven 
pitches of roof and for buildings of any width; the 
Brace Measure, which gives the length of common 



FOR HOME AND SCHOOL 



29 



15 I 14 I 13 I '12 I 11 



!7 — 30" 33"" 3 

I | 12 I 111 10 
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 T 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 i 1 1 1 1 



Fig. 6. — Framing square (back) . 



braces ; the Octagon " Eight-square " Scale, 
used for laying off lines to cut an "eight- 
square " or octagon stick of timber from a 
square one; and the Essex Board Measure, 
which gives the contents in feet and inches of 
boards of various lengths and widths. 

8. Rafter Table Directions. — The rafter 
table includes the outside edge graduations of 
the back of the square on both body and 
tongue, and is in twelfths. The inch marks 
may represent inches or feet, and the twelfth 
marks may represent twelfths of an inch or 
twelfths of a foot (that is, inches) as a scale. 
The edge graduation figures above the table 
represent the "run" of the rafter, and under 
the proper figure on the line representing the 
" pitch " will be found, in the table, the rafter 
length required. The "pitch" is represented 
by the figures at the left of the table and in 
the illustration under the word "Pitch." 



HI 
III 



iili 
11 



12 feet run to 
12 feet run to 
12 feet run to 
12 feet run to 
12 feet run to 
12 feet run to 
12 feet run to 



4 feet rise is 
6 feet rise is 
8 feet rise is 
10 feet rise is 
12 feet rise is 
15 feet rise is 
18 feet rise is 



J pitch. 
J pitch. 
J pitch. 
A pitch. 
J pitch. 
f pitch, 
f pitch. 



30 



EDUCATIONAL WOODWORKING 







-24-FEET-WIDE- 



The Eun of a rafter set up in place is the hori- 
zontal measure from the extreme end of the foot to a 
plumh line from the ridge end. From A to B. 




- — — —- — 24--FEET-WIOE 



The Rise is the distance from the top of the ridge 
end of the rafter to the level of the foot. From C 
toD. 




The Pitch is the proportion that the rise hears to 
the whole width of the building. The above illustra- 
tion shows h pitch ; the rise of 8 feet being 5 of the 
width of the building. 




The Cuts or angles of a rafter are obtained by ap- 
plying the square so that the 12-inch mark on the 
body and the mark on the tongue that represents the 
rise shall both be at the edge of the rafter. The illus- 
tration shows 8-foot rise, the line A the cut for the 
foot end of rafter and B the cut for ridge end. 




Fig. 7. — Rafter 
table. 



FOR HOME AND SCHOOL 



31 




li A a 


/ 


\ E 
\ 
\ 
\ 
\ 
\ 


\ 


/ 

/ 
/ F 



^ 


W — 


O 


= 


- IS £ 


-5 


<n 


to — 


£ 


— 


.»%•' 


_—_ 




— 


<o 


*f — 


2 




*] 


_E 




— 



— r-» m 



e B d 

To find the Length of a Rafter 

For a roof with J pitch (or the "rise " ^ 
the width of the building) and having a 
"run" of 12 feet: follow in the rafter 
table the upper or J pitch ruling, find, 
under the graduation figure 12, the rafter 
length required, which is 12 7 10, or 12 feet 
7\% inches. 

If the "run " is 11 feet, and the "pitch " 
J (or the "rise " J the width of the build- 
ing), then the rafter length will be 15 6 8, 
or 15 feet 6 T 8 2 inches. If the "run " is 25 
feet, add the rafter length for "run " of 23 
feet to the rafter length for "run " of 2 feet. 

When the "run" is in inches, then in 
the rafter table read inches and twelfths 
instead of feet and inches. For instance: 
if with J pitch the "run" is 12 feet 4 
inches, add the rafter length of 4 inches 
to that of 12 feet, as follows: — 

For "run" of 12 feet the 

rafter length is . . . . 16 ft. 11 T % in. 
For "run" of 4 inches the 

rafter length is ... . 5 T 8 T in. 

Fig. 8. — Brace " — " 

measure. Total 17 ft. 5^ in. 



00 10 — 



o\ t* 



32 



EDUCATIONAL WOODWORKING 




Fig. 9. — Octagon 
eight-square" scale. 



The "run " of 4 inches 
is found under the grad- 
uation "4" and is 5 7 11, 
which may be read 5^ 
inches. If it were feet, 
it would read 5 feet, 7 \\ 
inches. 

9. Brace Measure. — This is along the 
center of the back of the "tongue," and 
gives the length of the common braces. 

|j! 50 91 — in the scale means, that if the 
run is 36 inches on the post, and the same 
on the beam, then the brace will be 50j\\ 
inches, or the hypotenuse of a right angle 
triangle. 

If the run is 51 inches on both beam and 
post, then the brace will be 72 t ^ 2 q inches, 
and so on. 

10. Octagon "Eight-square" Scale. — 
This scale is along the middle of the face 
of the tongue, and is used for laying off 
lines to cut an "eight-square" or octagon 
stick of timber from a square one. 

Suppose the figure ABCD, page 31, is 
the butt of a square stick of timber 6x6 
inches. Through the center draw the lines 
AB and CD, parallel with the sides and at 
right angles to each other. 

With the dividers take as many spaces 
(6) from the scale as there are inches in 
the width of the stick, and lay off this 



■» - o> — 



V> — — -IT 



FOR HOME AND SCHOOL 



33 



Fig. 10. — Essex 
board measure. 



space on either side of 
the point A, as Aa and 
Ah; lay off in the same 
way the same space from 
the point B, as Bd, Be; 
also Of, Cg and Db, Dc. 
Then draw the lines db, cd, ef, and gh. 
Cut off the solid angle E, also F, G, and 
H; this will leave an octagon or " eight- 
square " stick. This is nearly exact. 

1 1 . Essex Board Measure. — The fig- 
ure 12 in the graduation marks on the 
outer edge represents a one-inch board 
12 inches wide and is the starting point 
for all calculations ; the smaller figures 
under the 12 represent the length. 

A board 12 inches wide and 8 feet 
long measures 8 square feet, and so on 
down the table. Therefore, to get the 
square feet of a board 8 feet long and 
6 inches wide, find the figure 8 in the 
scale under the 12-inch graduation mark 
and pass the pencil along to the left 
on the same line to a point below the 
graduation mark 6 (representing the 
width of the board), and you stop on 
the scale at 4, which is 4 feet, the 
board measure required. If the board 
is the same length and 10 inches wide, 
look under the graduation mark 10 on 
a line with the figure 8 before men- 




^— to wu-» -«-»-» IQ — 



34 



KDI'CATIONAL WOODWORKING 



tioned, and you find 63^ feet board measure. Tf IS 
inches wide, then to the right under the graduation 
mark 18, and L2 feet is found to be the board measure. 
If L3 feel long and 7 inches wide, find 13 in the scale under 
the L2-inch graduation, and on tin 4 same line under the 
7-inch graduation will Ik 1 found 7/., feet board measure. 
If the board is half this length, take half of this result ; 
if double 4 this length, then double the result. For stuff 
12 inches thick double the figures. 

In this way the scale covers all Lengths of boards, the 
most common, from 8 feet to b*> feet, being given. 

12. History of the Framing Square. The square 
was used by the ancient Greeks and Romans. Pliny 
said that the square and level were invented by Theodo- 
rus, a Greek of Samos; but this cannot be true, for the 
ancient Egyptians must have 1 had and used these tools 
in the building of the Pyramids. Theodorus may have 
made improvements in the square and level, and probably 
discovered new problems in which they could be used. 
Prehistoric nations must have used them or similar 
tools also, for evidences of their use are found in the 
ruins of prehistoric races. A story of the history of tools 
is a story of the history and development of the race. 




Fin. 11. — Plumb and level. 



13. Plumb and Level. — A plumb and level consists 
of two level glasses mounted as shown in Fig. 11. The 



FOR HOMK AND .SCHOOL 



35 



level glasses are mounted in cherry, mahogany, or rose- 
wood blocks, or in a built-up metallic frame. When only 
one level glass 



is used, as in 

Fig. 12, it is 

called a level, 

or a "spirit Fia 12 -- Le ™i. 

level." A plumb and level is used in testing horizontal 

and perpendicular surfaces. 






Fig. 13. — Level glass 
(showing setting) . 



Fig. 14. — Plumb glass 

(showing setting). 



14. Marking Gauge. — The marking gauge (Fig. 15) 
is used in drawing a line parallel with a straight edge. 
The parts are called the bar, head, thumbscrew, and 

point. The bar 
has graduations 
in inches. The 
head and bar 
are made of ap- 
ple wood, ma- 
hogany, boxwood, or rosewood, while the point is made 
of steel. 

15. Mortise Gauge. — The mortise gauge (Fig. 16) is 
used in drawing two parallel lines parallel with a straight 




Fig. 15. — Marking gauge, a, bar; &, head; 

c, thumbscrew ; d, point. 



36 



EDUCATIONAL WOODWORKING 




Fig. 10. — Mortise gauge, a, bar; b, head: c, 
thumbscrew ; </, fixed point ; e, movable point ; 
/, set screw for movable point. 



edge. It is con- 
structed like a 
marking gauge 
except that it 
has two points, 
one fixed and a 
movable point. 
Its principal use is in the making of mortise and tenon 
joints, from which its name is derived. 

16. Gauge Attachment. — Fig. 17 shows a Stanley 
improved gauge with patent attachment. The object 
of this attachment is to enable one to run a gauge line 
with perfect steadiness and accuracy around curves of 




ill] 'L'^ihlililililililili 




_ 



QWO 



Fig. 17. — Stanley gauge with patent attachment. 

any degree, and either concave or convex. It will be ob- 
served that the gauge head is reversible, and the flat side 
can be used for ordinary work. The patent attachment 
can, however, be used on nearly every make of gauges. 

17. Dividers or Compasses. — Dividers or compasses 
are used in dividing lines, in describing arcs and cir- 
cles, in measuring figures, and in scribing. The term 
" dividers " is usually applied to the instrument made use 



FOR HOME AND SCHOOL 



37 



of by draughtsmen, while " compasses" are made use of 
by mechanics. Either term, however, is correct. The 




Fig. 18. — Copeland dividers with one movable point, a, fixed point; 
b, movable point; c, d, e, set serews; /, arc; g, joint. 

construction and parts are shown in Fig. 18. In working 
at the bench great care should be exercised not to lose any 
of the set screws. 

1 8. Calipers. — Calipers are instruments having curved 
legs which are used in measuring the caliber, or di- 





Fio. 19. —Outside calipers. 
a, legs; b, joint. 



Fig. 20. — Inside calipers. 
a, legs; b, joint. 



ameter, of round bodies. Outside calipers are used for 
outside measuring, while inside calipers are used for 



38 



EDUCATIONAL WOODWORKING 



inside measuring. They are indispensable in wood 
turning, but have little use in bench work. The legs 
are made of steel and are usually polished. The measur- 
ing points should come together evenly for accurate 
work. 

19. Wire Gauge. — The wire gauge is used in measur- 
ing wire, nails, etc. There is a lack of uniformity in wire 

gauges in the 
United States. 
The follow- 
ing different 
standards are 
in use. Ameri- 
can or Brown 
and Sharp, 
Birmingham 
or Stubs' Wire, 
Washburn and 
Moen Manu- 
facturing Com- 
pany, Imperial 
Wire Gauge, 
and United 
For tables of sizes and standards 




Fig. 21. — Wire gauge 



States Standard, 
see Appendix B. 



Edge Tools 



20. Sloyd Knife. — A sloyd knife should be made of 
the finest grade of tool steel, highly tempered, having an 
extra strong blade with a thick back, and having a 
handle that fits the hand with an easy grip. A No. 7 



FOR HOME AND SCHOOL 39 

sloyd knife with a 2|-inch blade is an excellent knife 
for bench work, and for knife work. 




Fig. 22. — Sloyd knife, No. 7. 

2i. Socket Firmer-chisel. — The socket firmer-chisel 
is used as a paring tool in making joints, in reducing 
blocks to desired shapes, and in chamfering. The body 
of the chisel is made of the best tool steel, properly 
tempered, and carefully made. The chisel is ground with 
two bevels on the same side, a broad bevel ground with a 
grindstone, and a short bevel ground with an oilstone. 

t 




Fig. 23. — Socket firmer-chisel, a, handle; b, blade; c, shank; d, bevel; 
e, cutting edge ; /, socket. 

The handles are made of wood, hickory being the best. 
Other woods are sometimes used, such as apple wood, 
dogwood, beech, cherry, rosewood, cocobola, boxwood, 
mahogany, ebony, lignum-vitae, etc. Most of the fancy 
woods named are used in making the handles of carving 
tools. The chisel handle, being made of wood, should 
not be struck with a hammer, but with a mallet when 
necessary. Alivays use wood to drive wood and steel to 
drive steel. The general run of carpentry and building 
mechanics prefer the socket handle chisel. 

22. Tang Firmer-chisel. — This style of chisel is 
preferred by joiners, cabinetmakers, pattern makers, 



40 



EDUCATIONAL WOODWORKING 



and those engaged in the finer class of woodworking. 
They are better balanced, hang better, and cut nicer 
than the socket chisels, but arc 4 more easily broken. A 
ferrule handle is used on this style of chisel. The term 
"firmer" refers to the manner in which the tool is made 




Fig. 24. — Tang firmer-chisel, b, blade; c, shank; d, bevel; e, cutting 

edge ; g, tang. 
^ 

and the material out of which it is made. Firmer- 
chisels have blades wholly of tool steel, while in some 
kinds of chisels iron blades overlaid with steel are used. 
Firmer-chisels should be used in manual training work. 
They are made in sizes from lf/ to 2". 

23. Corner Chisel. — This chisel, as its name suggests, 
is used in cutting out corners. Its use in manual training- 
is not very extensive; still, there should be a few of them 
in every shop equipment. 




Fig. 25. — Corner chisel, a, handle; b, blade; c, shank ; d, bevel; e, cut- 
ting edge ; /, socket. 

24. Gouge. — A gouge is used in wood turning, in 
gouging, and in carving. The blade is curved, giving a 
curved cutting edge. The shape of the cutting edge is 
called the sweep, as "regular sweep," "middle sweep," 
and "flat sweep." A gouge, like a chisel, is made in 



FOR HOME AND SCHOOL 



41 



9 



1-1 

Q 









p 



H 

P 



P 
ft 

ft 
O 

ft 



i-j 
P 
p 

ft 

fcb 



ft 

o 



ft 

<x> 



Ul 



42 



EDUCATIONAL WOODWORKING 



different sizes and shapes and with either socket or 
tang handles. 

25. Wood-turning Tools. — The cutting tools used in 
wood turning are the turning chisel, turning gouge, and 
parting tool. These are made in different sizes. 

26. Wood-carving Tools. — There are many sizes 
and shapes of tools used in wood carving. For names, 
cuts, and the sweep of each tool see Figs. 30-35. Carv- 
ing sets may be obtained put up in neat boxes for 
home use. 



BUCK BROS. 








fjUC K Kr-as, 



ii!»iw,i . 1 1 1 1 ra i iiumiii.iiHiiiiuiiHimmimiumiumiiiimmiimiiWHii'iii^ 




BUCK Bftpgr 



BflHlimmiimfifiiEiiimiimiimuiiiiimiimiimtiiiiir.ii , in., ,'i,i . . 9 



Fig. 30. — Back bent gouges, 



FOR HOME AND SCHOOL 



43 




Fig. 31. — Front bent gouges. 



44 



EDUCATIONAL WOODWORKING 











Fig. 32. — Straight gouges. 



FOR HOME AND SCHOOL 



45 





Fig. 33. — Curved gouges- 



46 



EDUCATIONAL WOODWORKING 




buck mi ni . 

T^1jr.-M^»liaE*Jall.*llwimBuuMmWll | 



Front beut chisel. 




Right corner chisel. 




Left corner chisel. 




Carving chisel. 



Skew carving chisel. 
Fig, 34. 



FOR HOME AND SCHOOL 



47 




\ 











Fig. 35. — Parting tools. 



48 



EDUCATIONAL W( )< ) I ) W < > I ! K I \ < ! 



27. Planes. — One of the most important parts of a 
manual training equipment are the planes. Students as 




Fu;. 36. — Fore plane (showing corrugated bottom). 

a rule find difficulty in mastering the uses and the ad- 
justments of these tools, and too much emphasis eannot 

l>e put upon a propef 
study of them. They 
should be properly 
sharpened, carefully 
set, and used cor- 
rectly. Usually, in 
woodworking outfits, 

are found a jack plane 

for rough planing, a 

Fig. 37. —Smooth plane. fore plane for truing 




FOR HOME AND SCHOOL 



49 




long surfaces, and a smooth plane for planing broad 
surfaces and end wood; but in manual training work 
the fore plane, 
smooth plane, and 
block plane arc 
used. The planes 
shown in Figs. 36, 
37, and 38 are iron 
planes, but some 
woodworkers pre- 
fer wood bottom 
planes, shown in 
Fig. 39. There are 
many kinds of 
planes in use for 
different purposes. 
Among these we 
note the following: 
smooth, jack, fore, 
jointer, block, circular, belt maker's, low angle block, 
rabbet, bull-nose rabbet, core-box, chamfer, scrub, dado, 
double-end match, beading, piano maker's, etc. 




Fig. 38. — Knuckle joint block plane, show- 
ing patent throat adjustment. 




Fig. :;!). — Wood bottom plane. 



50 



EDUCATIONAL WOODWORKING 




Sectional elevation of Bailey iron plane. 



List of Parts of Bailey Planes. 



1. Plane iron. 

2. Plane iron cap. 

3. Plane iron screw. 

4. Cap. 

5. Cap screw. 

6. Frog. 

7. "Y" adjustment. 

8. Brass adjusting nut. 

9. Lateral adjustment. 



10. Frog screw. 

11. Handle. 

12. Knob. 

13. Handle " bolt and nut." 

14. Knob " bolt and nut." 

15. Handle screw. 

16. Bottom (iron plane). 

35. Top casting (wood plane). 

36. Bottom (wood plane). 




Sectional elevation of Bailey wood plane. 
Fig. 40. 



FOR HOME AND SCHOOL 



51 






p. 

I — ' 
CD 




52 



EDUCATIONAL WOODWORKING 




A C B D 

Fig. 41. — Stanley patent universal plane. 



This plane com- 
prises a plow, dado, 
rabbet, beading, 
reeding, fluting, 
round, hollow, sash, 
match, tilletster, 
slitting, chamfer, 
and general mould- 
ing plane in one 
tool, is easily ad- 
justed, and can be 
used for a great va- 
riety of work. 




By means of the pat- 
ent adjustable bottom 
and the auxiliary center 
bottom it is possible to 
use a cutter of practically 
an\ Shape with this plane. 
The directions which ac- 
company each tool are 
readily understood. The 
plane is nickel-plated and 
has 52 cutters. 



As a 

mould- 
ing 
plane. 



FOR HOME AND SCHOOL 



53 



L — y\^j 

Quarter Round*. Quarter Rounds with Bead. 




Reeding Tools, 




Match Tool Cash Tool. 




Grecian Ogee*. 



^rwi|vyirv_y-|a/ 



Quarter Rounds 
with Bead. 



Reverse Ogees. 



♦ 
25 



♦ 
26 



27 



28 



♦ 
29 



♦ 
2:2 



222 



Roman Ogees.. Quarter Hollow! 



♦ 

232 



3d 



Beading Tools. 



Reeding Tools. Fluting Tool$ 




Ploy.- Oacto ft RaDbet Toolfi. 



filletsler. Sash Tool Match Toot 



Fig. 42. — Cutters for Stanley universal plaue. 



54 



EDUCATIONAL WOODWORKING 



28. Spokeshave. — This is a very useful tool in a 
bench equipment. It is used in making handles and in 
working on curved surfaces. Spokeshaves differing in 




Fig. 43. — Spokeshave. a, handle; b, blade: c, set screw: 
d, cap iron. 

shape (convex or concave) are made for convex and 
concave cutting. These shaves are especially useful 
to stair builders, pattern makers, and carriage makers. 
The spokeshave should never be used for doing work 
that can be done with a plane. 

29. Metal Snips. — Metal snips are used in cutting 
sheet metals. They are indispensable in bent iron and 




Fig. 44. — Metal snips. 

sheet metal work. Snips are made in different sizes. 
There are many kinds of snips which are used for various 
purposes. 



for home and school 55 

Tools with Teeth 

30. Saws and their Construction. — Saws are clas- 
sified as reciprocating in action and continuous in action. 
A reciprocating saw has a straight cutting edge, or an 
'edge that is slightly curved, while the continuous saws 
are the circular saws and the band saws. Saws are made 
from the best steel saw plates. In early times these 
plates were imported from England, but now most of 
the American saws are made from American saw plate. 
The processes involved in the making of the best saws are 
as follows : 1. Tempering, giving hardness and toughness 
to the blade. 2. Smithing or hammering, making the 
plate level and toughening the steel. 3. Grinding, 
giving a uniform thickness, or a tapering thickness. 
4. Polishing, causing the saw to run easily. 5. Punch- 
ing of teeth, giving shape to the teeth. 6. Jointing, set- 
ting, and filing, giving a proper cutting edge. 7. Etch- 
ing, giving the maker's name, address, trade-mark, etc. 
8. Handling, fitting well-shaped handles to give the 
saw the proper " hang." 9. Blocking, the final oper- 
ation to make the saw straight and level. 

Nearly every element that enters into the construc- 
tion of a saw tends to give efficiency to the tool, and that 
efficiency is measured by the amount of force required to 
do a given amount of work. The cut which a saw makes 
in wood is called the " kerf." A thick blade will make 
a wider kerf than a thin blade, and more force is required 
in using a thick blade. The bending of the saw teeth a 
little (one to the right, and the next to the left, etc.) 
by means of a saw set is what gives " set" to a saw. 



EDUCATIONAL WOODWORKING 



D 



-TT 



^s 



03 



H 



itf" 



:^>; 



i m 



SI 



\ £^ 




"e 



— 
— 



00 



-c 
^ 



ts I 



FOR HOME AND SCHOOL 57 

The amount of set also determines the width of the 
kerf. In sawing hard woods little set is required, 
while in sawing soft and spongy woods more set is re- 
quired. 

31. Rip Saw. — A rip saw is a saw having teeth 
especially adapted for dividing wood in a direction 
parallel to its fibers. It is used for sawing with the grain 
of wood. The teeth are nothing less than a series of 
small chisels arranged so that each tooth does its own 
share of the cutting. It will be observed in Fig. 45 that 
the teeth of the rip saw slant forward. This shape is one 
of the chief characteristics of the rip saw, for it gives 
efficiency to the tool in splitting the fibers. The cuts in 
Fig. 46 are full size of the respective number of teeth 
and points per inch which they represent. A "3-point" 
saw is a saw having three points to the inch but not 
three teeth to the inch. A "3-point" saw has two 
teeth to the inch. It will be observed that in one inch 
of space there is always one tooth less than there are 
points. 

32. How to sharpen a Rip Saw. — A rip saw does its 
cutting by means of the front part of the tooth. This 
part of the tooth wears down fastest and it needs most 
of the filing that is done on the tooth. The back of the 
tooth should be filed very little, just enough to give the 
required depth between the teeth. Rip saws are jointed 
and set the same as cross-cut saws, but the teeth are 
filed straight across so that they are perfectly square 
on the front side. In using a rip saw it should be held at 
an angle of 45 degrees with the wood that is being cut, 
as shown in Fig. 47. 



Fig. 4(5. — Teeth and points per inch of rip saws. 
58 




Fig. 47. — Position of rip saw when cutting. 



59 





u 






60 




QIROINmSl 




ilQlBQINffll 




Fig. 49. — Teeth and points per inch of cross-cut saws (full size). 

61 



62 



EDUCATIONAL WOODWORKING 



33. Cross-cut Saw. — In a cross-cut saw the teeth 
are V-shaped and are sharpened in such a way that 
they cut the fibers in passing over them. The finer a 
saw is made to cut ; the greater the number of teeth to the 
inch. For the number of teeth and points per inch see 
Fig. 49. For ordinary cross-cutting a 10-point saw 
(10 points to the inch) should be used, while for ordinary 
ripping a 7-point rip saw should be used. 

34. How to sharpen a Cross-cut Saw. — Place the 
saw in the saw vise. The first process in putting a saw in 




Fig. 50. — Hand-saw jointer. 

order is known as jointing. To joint a saw take a flat 
mill file and file the teeth down until they are all the 
same height. See Fig. 50. 

The second operation is the setting. This is done by 
means of a saw set (Fig. 51), which turns the points of the 
teeth uniformly. The teeth should be set alternately 
right and left. Great care should be exercised not to 
break the teeth, for in highly tempered saws the teeth 
are brittle. Very little set is required in saws for bench 
work — just enough to make them clear nicely. 



FOR HOME AND SCHOOL 



63 




Fig. 51. — Monarch patent saw-set. 
A and C, set screws; B, gauge; D, plunger 



V 



>"^\ 




Fig. 52. — Saw-filing guide. 
(Especially designed to assist 
those not skilled in the art of 
saw-filing to file a saw cor- 
rectly.) 



64 



EDUCATIONAL WOODWORKING 



After the jointing and setting the saw is ready to be 
filed. Select good files of proper sizes. Six and seven 
point saws require a 7-inch slim taper file; eight and 
nine points, 6-inch slim taper file; and for ten, eleven, 
and twelve point saws a 5-inch slim taper file is required. 
Begin to file at the heel and progress towards the tip, 




Fig. 53. — Filing position. 

filing the teeth which are set away from you. 
When the teeth are filed on one side reverse the saw 
and repeat the process. The teeth are filed at an angle 
of 45 degrees, as shown in Fig. 53. Sometimes other 
angles are used, but for general use this is preferred. 
Fig. 55 shows a saw 7 that has been incorrectly filed. 
Avoid such errors. Fig. 53 also show r s the proper posi- 
tion of the file in filing. 



FOR HOME AND SCHOOL 



65 




Fig. 5-4. — Correct filing. 




Fig. 55. — Incorrect filing. 

Looking down the edge of a saw after it has been filed, 
the groove should appear as in Fig. 56. If a tooth is out 
of place, it will be easily detected. A saw in good con- 




M 



Fig. 56. 



Fig. 57. 



Fig. 58. 



Fig. 59. 



clition should leave the bottom of the kerf flat, like Fig. 
57, and not like Fig. 58. The cutting action of the teeth 
is shown in Fig. 59. In making a knife line the blade 



66 



EDUCATIONAL WOODWORKING 



will cut more smoothly if it is inclined forward a little 
instead of being held in a perpendicular position, so a 
cross-cut tooth should incline forward. The slant of the 
cutting edge of a tooth is called the pitch or rake of the 




Fig. 60. — Cutting action of saw teeth. C, cross-cut saw ; D, rip saw. 

tooth. Fig. 60 illustrates the principle on which saw 
teeth are constructed. 

35. Back Saw. — The back saw is a cross-cut saw with 
very fine teeth. It is intended for fine and accurate 
sawing. The saw blade is very thin and this is reenforced 



FOR HOME AND SCHOOL 



67 



by an iron strip extending along the back of the saw. 
The blade is uniform in width and is from 8 to 14 inches 
in length. 




Fig. Gl. — Back saw. a, blade; b, handle; c, teeth; d, tip; e, heel; 

/, back. 

36. Bracket Saw. — A bracket saw is a saw constructed 
in such a way that it can be used in sawing curves in thin 
woods. It is a very valuable tool in manual training 




Fig. 62. — Bracket saw. a, frame; b, blade; c, handle. 

work, for many of the projects are made up of curved 
designs. The blades are made in different lengths and 
sizes from 3 to 5 inches for different thicknesses of 
wood. 



68 



EDUCATIONAL WOODWORKING 



37. Hack Saw. — A hack saw is constructed very 
much like a bracket saw except that it is heavier. It is 
used in sawing metals. The blades have about fourteen 




Fig. 63. — Hack saw. a, frame; b, handle; c, adjustable back; d, blade. 

teeth to the inch and are from 6 to 12 inches in length. 
The one shown in Fig. 63 is adjustable, taking blades of 
different lengths. 

38. Miter Box. — A miter box is a device for holding 
wood while it is being sawed at an angle. Such a device 
is very useful in the making of picture frame joints or 
miter joints. Fig. 65 shows an improved New Langdon 
miter box which can be used in cutting any angle from a 




Fig. 64. —Miter box. 



right angle to 45 degrees. This box has several adjust- 
ments which are valuable. Fig. 64 is a cut of a box 
that can be made in any shop. It should be made of 
some hard wood like beech or maple. A cross-cut or a 



FOR HOME AND SCHOOL 



69 



back saw can be used in sawing by letting the saw run 
in the cuts made in the box. A miter box should never 




Fig. 65. — Improved new Langdou miter box. 

be used in doing work that is intended to develop skill 
in sawing. Fig. 66 shows a miter planer which is used 
in planing end wood, or in planing at any angle. 




Fig. 66. — Rogers miter planer. 



70 



EDUCATIONAL WOODWORKING 




39. Files. — A file is an in- 
strument made of steel, hav- 
ing its surfaces covered with 
sharp-edged furrows or teeth. 
The furrows are made by 
straight parallel cuts in the 
steel . For names and illustra- 
tions of cuts see Plate A, 
Fig. 67. As to the coarse- 




Fig. (>7. — Files and rasps. 
a, hand smooth file; b, 
taper saw iile; c, half- 
round wood rasp. 



William T. Nicholson, founder of 
the Nicholson File Company. 

ness or fineness of files, they 
are classified as rough, middle 
cut, bastard, second cut, 
smooth, and superfine or dead- 
smooth. As to the kind and 
coarseness of cuts and the 
shapes and sizes of files, many 
combinations are made, giv- 
ing a great variety of files. 
The File Manufacturers' Asso- 



FOR HOME AND SCHOOL 



71 



ciation of the United States quote more than 3000 
different files and wood rasps alone. The work to be 
done must determine the kind of file to use. A new 




mmmm 



Rasp, second cut. 






Rasp, smooth. 




Double cut bastard. 

H 




Dbl. cut second cut. 




Double cut smooth. 
Plate A, Fig. 67. 




Single cut coarse. 




Single cut bastard. 




Sins;, cut sec. cut. 




Single cut smooth. 



file should be used lightly at first, until the thin sharp 
edges are worn off, after which a heavier pressure may 
be applied. In filing high-tempered steel the finer grades 



72 



EDUCATIONAL WOODWORKING 



of files, called second cut, should be used. In using a file 
a steady stroke with strong pressure is most effective. 

40. Wood Rasps. — A wood rasp is a kind of file 
used in cutting down rough edges of wood. It differs 
from a file in that the teeth of a rasp are coarse, single 
teeth, raised from the bar of steel by the pyramidal end 
of a triangular punch struck obliquely. The wood rasp 
is a tool whose use should not be encouraged very much 
in manual training work, and when it is used it should 
never take the place of an edged tool. 




Fig. G8. — File cleaner. 



41. File Cleaner. — A file, like every other tool, should 
be kept clean. For this purpose a file cleaner (Fig. 68) 
is used. It is a wire brush made of the best grade of fine 
steel wire. 

Boring Tools 

42. Auger. — An auger is a tool used in boring a hole 
in wood. Augers are made of the best grade of cast 
steel properly tempered. The blade is twisted in such a 
way that a perfect spiral groove is formed by means of 
which the chips are discharged. There should be at 
least one set of augers in the shop equipment, con- 



FOR HOME AND SCHOOL 



73 



sisting of one handle and one bit of each of 
the following sizes: J", f' ; |", f", 1", lJr", 
1}" ; 1 J", If, and 2". For rapid boring a 
boring machine like the one shown in 
Fig. 70 is sometimes used. It is used more 
by the builder than by the bench worker. 




Fig. 70. — Snell boring machine. 

43. Auger Bits. — Auger bits are used 
for lighter work than the auger. The cut- 
ting parts are constructed like the auger, 
in fact an auger bit is an auger having 
a tang that will fit a bit brace. One of the 
best makes of auger bits and perhaps the 
most extensively used is the Russell Jen- 
nings Auger Bit, which was patented by 



M 



> 

CD 



P 

a 



P 

CD 



P 

B 
era 



74 



EDUCATIONAL WOODWORKING 



Russell Jennings in 1855. There are, however, many 
other excellent bits on the market. There are also very 
many cheap bits on the market at the present time. 




Fig. 71. — Auger bit. a, shank; 6, blade; c, tang; d, nib; e, lips; /, spur. 

44. Short Auger or Dowel Bits. — These bits 
are used with great success in working with 
thin woods. As their name suggests, they were 
designed to be used in boring holes for dowel 
pins. For doweling a \" bit is used more than 



© 

z 



pq 




Fig. 72. — Short auger or dowel bit. 

any other size, for the standard size of dowel- 
ing is quarter-inch. Dowel bits are easily cen- 
tered and are not so liable to break or bend as 
a longer bit. They range in sixteenths in size 
from -y to 1". 




Fig. 73. — Brace dowel bit drill. 

45. Wood Drills. — For small holes in hard 
woods the wood drills are very good. They are 
rapid cutting and when well made are very 
efficient. They are graded in thirty-seconds and 
range from ^" to 1" in size. 



FOR HOME AND SCHOOL 



75 



46. Gimlet Bit. — The gimlet bit is used, like the wood 
drills, in boring very small holes. In using any small 
bit great care must be exercised not to break the bit. 




Fig. 75. — Auger bit gauge 



47. Auger Bit Gauge. — The auger bit gauge is a 
device to be attached to an auger bit to regulate the 
depth of the hole. It can be used on any bit up to 1" 
in size. 

48. Countersink. — After a hole has been bored for 
a screw the countersink is used to rim out the top of the 
hole to allow the screw head to fit down into the wood 




Fig. 76. — Countersinks, a, rose countersink; b, adjustable countersink. 

closely, thereby causing the screw to hold more tightly. 
Sinking the head of a screw even with the surface or 
below the surface of the wood is called countersinking. 



76 



EDUCATIONAL WOODWORKING 



49. Brace, or " Bit Brace." — The brace is a tool made 
to hold an auger bit or other boring tool and is used in 
driving those tools. It has a steel frame which is either 
polished or nickel-plated. The head (6) is usually ball- 
bearing that it may turn easily when pressure is brought 
against it. The wood part of the head and handle is 
made from some hard wood and is highly polished. 
The tang of the bit fits into the jaws of the chuck and 
by tightening the sleeve the bit is held firmly while being 




Fig. 77. — Brace, a, crank; &,head; c, handle; d, sleeve; e, jaws; 
d and e (together), chuck. 

driven. To insert a bit, grasp the sleeve firmly with the 
left hand, turn the handle backward until the jaws open 
enough to receive the tang of the bit, then turn the 
handle forward until the sleeve draws the jaws tightly 
together. There are three types of chucks used on 
braces. They are the " Spofford Style/' which has a 
split socket with a thumb set screw; the "Fray Style/' 
having two revolving sleeves; and the "Barber Style/' 
having two jaws regulated by a sleeve. The Barber brace 
(Fig. 77) is used more than any other style. The diam- 



FOR HOME AND SCHOOL 



77 



eter of a circle described by the handle (c) in making 
a complete turn is called the sweep of the brace. The 
sweep of braces varies from 4" to 14". The larger the 
sweep the easier the work can be done because of the 
greater leverage. For boring holes near walls or ob- 
structions where a complete sweep cannot be made, 
ratchet braces are used. A ratchet brace has a forward 
and a backward movement. The bit turns with the for- 
ward movement of the brace, but remains at rest while 
the brace is being turned backward. 




Fig. 78. — Screw-driver, a, blade; b, handle; c, ferrule. 

50. Screw-driver. — A screw-driver is used in driving 
screws. The blade is usually made of round steel which 
is forged on the end to fit the head of a screw. The blade 
is driven firmly into the body of the handle so that it 
hangs true. The handle is made of hard wood and is 
usually fluted to enable one to get a good grip with the 
hand. Screw-drivers range in size, according to the 
length of the blade, from 2 J" to 18". 




Fig. 7i». — .Screw-driver bit. a, blade; b, tang. 

51. Screw-driver Bit. — A screw-driver bit is a bit to 
be used in a brace in driving a screw. It is intended 
for driving large screws where great pressure and force 



78 



EDUCATIONAL WOODWORK INC 



are required. With this tool screws can be driven more 
rapidly and with greater case (han with an ordinary 
screw-driver. Screw-driver bits are made of cast steel 
and in assorted sizes for different sizes of screws. They 

are not intended to be used on very small screws. 




WUSUHODT cm. 



Fig. 80. — Screw and plug bit. a, shank; &,tang; c, drill; e, knife; 

/, set screw lor knives; <j, set screw for drill. 

52. Screw and Plug Bit. -- In finishing fine work like 
the top of an oak table it is sometimes desirable to drive 
a screw down through the top of the table and then cover 
the head of the screw. In such a case the screw and plug 
bit is used to bore a- hole for the shank of the screw and at 
the same time to bore a hole for a wooden plug which 
will cover the head of (lie screw. As will be seen in 
Fig. NO, the knife and drill are adjustable as to the depth 
of the cuts. 

" 1, 

Fig. 81. — Plug cutter, a, knife; /'.collar. 

53. Plug Cutter. - This is a tool to accompany the 
screw and plug bit. If is used in cut ting a plug across 
the grain of thin wood to fit a, hole made by the plug bit. 
The plug thus made is coated with glue and driven into 
(he hole to cover the head of the screw. When this work 



FOR HOME AND SCHOOL 



79 



is well done, it is hard to detect a plug in the finished piece. 
The screw and plug bit and the plug cutter arc made in 
Y, iV', and §" sizes. In cabinetmaking these tools are 
very useful. 

Clamping or Gripping Tools 

54. Hand Screw. — A 
hand screw is used in 
clamping glued surfaces 
together while the glue is 
setting, or it may be used 
for clamping pieces to- 
gether for other purposes. 
The jaws are usually made 
of maple, while the spin- 
dles are made of second 
growth hickory. The jaws and spindles arc made in 
different sizes for use in various kinds of clamping. 

55. Screw Clamp. — The screw clamp is intended for 
clamping small pieces together. It is made of 




Fig. 82. 
jaw ; 



— Hand screw. 
b, screw jaw 



a, shoulder 
C, middle 



spindle; d, end spindle. 




Fig. 83. — Screw clamp, a, frame; b, screw; c, washer; d, jaws. 



80 



EDUCATIONAL WOODWORKING 



malleable iron, except the screw, which is made of 
wrought iron. The screw clamps range in size from 3" 
to 10". 




Screw and crank. 



Fig. 84. — Adjustable steel bar clamp. 

56. Adjustable Steel Bar Clamp. — The adjustable 
steel bar clamps are used in clamping wide surfaces to- 
gether, such as 



doors, shelves, 
etc. They are 
made in differ- 
ent sizes to open 
from 2 J feet to 
10 feet. If at 
any time a part 
of the clamp 
breaks, it can 
be replaced with 

Fig. 85. — Stationary iron vise. , 

J a new part. 

57. Stationary Iron Vise. — This vise is designed for 
the use of carpenters, cabinetmakers, pattern makers, 




FOR HOME AND SCHOOL 



81 



and woodworkers generally. At least one vise like this, 
or a similar vise, should be in every shop equipment. 
Such a vise is useful in filing and in clamping metals. 




Loring Coes, originator of the screw wrench. Born, 1812; died, 1906. 




Fig. 86. — Coes' knife-handle wrench. 



58. Wrench. — A wrench is used to turn the nuts 
of bolts and in turning screws, such as lag screws. There 



82 



EDUCATIONAL WOODWORKING 



are about thirty different styles of wrenches made, and in 
all more than two hundred sizes. 




Fig. 88. — Round nose plier. 




Fig. 89. — Saw vise. 



59. Flat Nose Plier. — 
The flat nose plier is used 
in bent ironwork, and for 
various other purposes, 
such as holding, pulling, 
twisting, etc. 

60. Round Nose Plier. 
— The round nose plier is 
used in bent ironwork in 
making curves and scrolls. 

61. Saw Vise. -- A saw 
vise is used in clamping 
a saw firmly while it is 
being filed. 



FOll IiOMK AND SCHOOL 



83 



62. Picture Frame 
Vise. — This is a 
very handy tool to 
have in a shop. By 
means of this vise a 
picture frame can 
be securely clamped 
while it is being fas- 
tened, so that good 
joints are secured. 




Fig. 90. — Picture frame vise. 



Pounding Tools 

63. Hammer. — A hammer is a tool used for driving 
nails, and in pounding metals or other substances. It 

is one of the 
most important 
tools in a bench 
equipment. The 
best hammers 
are made of sol- 
id crucible steel 
with handles 
made of second 
growth hickory. 
They are made in 
different styles 
and sizes. A 
No. 1J hammer 
which weighs 

David Maydole, inventor oi the adz-eye hammer, about One pound 




XI 



EDUCATIONAL WOODWORKING 



is about the right size for all practical purposes. There 
are many kinds of hammers made, each designed for 




— ■■■.-■■ii l , . 



~ J rTOfnrirTIT 



Fig 91. — Adz-eye, regular style, hammer. 

some particular kind of work. Among the different 
kinds we note the carpenters', farriers', riveting, tin- 





Fig. 92.— Adz-eye, bell face, hammer. 

ners', horseshoers', blacksmiths', carriage ironers', en- 
gineers', machinists', coopers', prospecting, bricklayers', 
stonecutters', masons', etc. 




Fiq. 93. — Riveting hammer (plain eye). 



FOR HOME AND SCHOOL 



85 



64. Mallet. —A 

mallet is a tool 
made of very hard 
wood, such as lig- 
num-vitse, with a 
hickory handle. It 
is used in driving 

. . , Fig. 94. — Mallei 

chisels, gouges, 

wooden pins, etc. Mallets are made in different sizes and 

shapes. The style shown in Fig. 94 is very satisfactory. 





Fig. 95. — Trenton anvil. 



65. Anvil. — An anvil is a heavy iron block of a particu- 
lar shape upon 
which metals 
art 1 hammered 
and shaped. 
At least oik 1 
anvil should be 
in every wood- 
Fig. 90. — Trenton anvil (giving the names of parts), working shop. 




86 



EDUCATIONAL WOODWORKING 



Punching Tools 






Fig. ( .*7. Nail sel (knurled bodj , cup point). 

66. Nail Set. — A nail sot is a tool used in driving the 
head of a nail below the surface of wood. By the use of 

this tool the sur- 
face 1 of the wood 
is not marred by 
the face 1 of the 
"hammer. Nail 
sets are made in 
assorted sizes to 
(it the heads of 
different si /ah I 
nails. They have 
a knurled body, 
usually, which 
helps to give a 
firm grip. The 
point is usually 
cup-shaped. 

67. Belt Punch. - A belt punch is a tool used in 
punching holes through belts for belt lacings or for belt 
hooks. They are made in two styles — drive belt 



MATC* 






*NIAIL 5ET5 



^e c0 " 



.a**^*-*? 




Fig. 98. — Assorted nail sets. 




Fu.. 99. — Drive belt punch. 



VOH IIOMH AND SCHOOL 



87 



punch, Fig. 90, to be driven with a hammer, and spring 
belt punch, Fig. 100. Both kinds arc made in assorted 
sizes. The tubes on the spring punches revolve, and 
these punches are made with either four or six tubes. 




Fig. 100. — Revolving spring belt punch. 

68. Carvers' Punch. --This tool is used by wood 
carvers for groundwork in decorating objects. They 
are made in assorted sizes and designs. 



Grinding Tools 

69. Grindstone. — One of the most useful tools about 
a workshop is the grindstone, which is used in sharpening 
tools. Perhaps the best grindstones are obtained from 
the quarries in Ohio. One of the largest grindstone 
companies in the world, if not the largest, is the Cleve- 
land Stone Company. Grindstones are made in an 
assortment of sizes and grit. An important factor in the 
operation of a stone is its speed. The average speed 
varies from 2500 to 4000 feet per minute. The stone 
should be kept free from dirty water, grease, or oil. 



88 



EDUCATIONAL WOODWORKING 



Use clean water and keep the stone true. In grinding 
small tools the tendency is to hollow the grindstone and 
thus render it untrue. A Jackson Grindstone Truing 




Fig. 101. — Power grindstone. 

Device, Fig. 102, or some other truing device, should be 
used frequently to keep the stone true. 

70. Oilstone. — A tool that is indispensable about a 
bench is an oilstone. It is needed every little while 
for putting a keen cutting edge on chisels, planes, and 



FOR HOME AND SCHOOL 



89 



3 

S 



O 
VI 

O 
TO 

3' 









90 



EDUCATIONAL WOODWORKING 



knife. A good oil stone is hard to get, for most stones 
are too hard or too soft, or have other imperfections. 
Perhaps the most commonly used and the best known of 
all oilstones are the Washita oilstones. The manu- 
facturers or cutters of these stones make four grades, 
which are known as 1, "Lily White," and "Rosy 
Red"; 2, "Extra Washita"; 3, "No. Washita"; 
and 4, "No. 2 Washita." The "Lily White" and 
'Rosy Red " are the best stones, the "No. 2 Washita" 




Fig. 103. — Oil stone. 



the poorest. The Arkansas oilstones are also quite 
common. These, however, being of finer grit than the 
Washita stones, are not so good for woodworking tools, 
as they cut too slowly. They are used extensively by 
engravers, surgeons, tool makers, etc., where very keen 
edges are required. Among the many kinds of stones 
might be mentioned the Turkey oilstones, the Deerlick, 
Seneca, Niagara, Chocolate, Lake Superior, Hindostan, 
and others. Fig. 103 shows an Arkansas stone mounted 
in a polished cherry box. Fig. 104 shows a Washita 



FOR HOME AND SCHOOL 



91 



slip used in sharpening gouges. Before using an oil 
stone it should be wiped off with waste and a few drops 
of oil put on the stone. After using the stone should be 
wiped off again. 




Fig. 104. — Oil slip. 

When an oilstone becomes concave or untrue by con- 
stant use, it may be made true by using sand paper on 
it, or by means of a sand wheel. Tack a sheet of sand- 
paper over a block of wood and rub the stone back and 
forth over the sandpaper until the surface of the oil- 
stone is true. Use coarse sandpaper at first, then fine 
sandpaper. 

71. Carborundum Stones. — Another very important 
abrasive is carborundum, which is manufactured by The 
Carborundum Company, Niagara Falls, N.Y. The fol- 
lowing charac- 
teristics of car- 
borundum are 
given out by the 
manufacturers 
of this remark- 
able substance : 

Hardness. — Diamond is the only material exceeding 
it in hardness. It cuts emery and corundum with ease. 

Brittleness. — Not as tough as the diamond, closely 
resembling corundum in this respect. 




Fig. 105. — Combination stones (one face coarse, 
and one face fine, grit). 



92 



KIH'CATIONAL W< >< >l >W< >K K 1 \< I 




Fig. 10G. — Pocket stone. 



Weight. — Its specific gravity is 3.12. It is a little 
more than one and one fifth the weight of sand. One 
pound of carborundum is equal in volume to one and one 

quarter pounds of emery. 
Infusibility. — Infusible 
in the highest attainable 
heat. Decomposition oc- 
curs in the electric arc. 
Insolubility. — It is insoluble in any of the ordinary 
solvents. Water, oils, and acids have no effect upon it, 
not even hydrofluoric acid, which readily dissolves sand. 
Chemical Composition. — It is composed of carbon 
and silicon in atomic pro- 
portions, and by weight 
thirty parts carbon to 
seventy parts silicon. Its 
formula is SiC. 

Color. — Pure carbo- 
rundum is white. In its commercial manufacture the 
crystals are produced in many colors and shades, par- 
tially as the result of impurities, and partly owing to sur- 
face oxidation. 
The prevailing 
colors are green, 
black, and blue. 
The color has 
no effect upon 
its hardness. 

72. How to sharpen Edge Tools. — In sharpening 
edge tools, such as chisels, plane bits, sloyd knife, etc., 
certain principles must be observed. The correct shape 




Fig. 107. — Slip stones. 




Fig. 108. — Carborundum stones. 



FOR HOME AND SCHOOL 



93 




Fig. 109. — Showing position of 
chisel on grindstone. 



of the tool mast be preserved in the sharpening process,' 
and at the same time a keen cutting edge must be secured. 
The first process of sharpening is called grinding. 
This is done by means of a grindstone set in motion. If 
a chisel or a plane bit is 
to be ground, it should be 
held as shown in Fig. 109. 
The angle at which the 
tool is ground is deter- 
mined by the kind of ma- 
terial to be cut. If it is 
to be used on soft wood, 
the tool should be held at an angle of about 20 degrees 
with the stone, and for hard wood it should be held at 
about 30 degrees with 
the stone. The grind- 
stone should turn as 
shown by the arrow in 
the cut. Avoid round- 
ing the bevel in grinding. 
Keep the bevel straight. 
A sloyd knife and turn- 
ing chisels are ground as 
shown in Fig. 110, with 
a straight bevel on each 
side of the cutting edge. 
Ordinary chisels and plane bits have a bevel only on one 
side, as shown in Fig. 111. 

After the tool has been ground it should be sharpened 
on the oilstone, as shown in Fig. 112. The tool is shoved 
back and forth as indicated by the arrows until a delicate 



Fig. 110.— 
Blade of 

sloyd knife 
(showing 
correct 

grinding) . 



N 



Fig. 111. — Chisel (show- 
ing correct grinding.) 



94 



EDUCATIONAL WOODWORKING 




wire edge is turned up on the straight edge. The straight 
edge is then held flat on the stone and shoved back and 
forth a few strokes. These two processes are repeated 
until the wire edge disappears and a keen cutting edge 

is produced. A 
few strokes 
made across the 
palm of the 
hand will also 
help to remove 
the wire edge. 

Fig. 112. — Showing position of chisel on oilstone. 'Tpof fLp put- 
ting edge to see if it is sharp by drawing the thumb 
very lightly across the cutting edge. 

Gouges and other edged tools are sharpened in a 
similar way. 

Extra Tools 

73. Cabinet Scraper. — The cabinet scraper is an 
oblong piece of polished saw steel and is used in scraping 
hard woods. Cabinet scrapers 
are made in assorted sizes. The 
3" times 5" size is a good size for 
bench work. They are sharpened 
with a file in such a way that a 
fine wire edge is turned, and it 
is this wire edge that really 
does the cutting or scraping. As soon as this is worn off 
the scraper should be filed again. With the improved 
block planes which we now have there is little use for 
cabinet scrapers. 




Fig. 113. — Cabinet scraper. 



FOR HOME AND SCHOOL 



95 



74. Oiler. — The oiler is used 
about the bench to hold oil 
that is used frequently on the 
oilstone and for other purposes. 
A copperized can like the one 
shown in Fig. 114 is a good 
can for use about a bench. 
Oilers are made in assorted 
sizes and in different shapes and 
styles. 

75. Bench Brush. — This is a 
brush used in dusting the tools 
and bench. It should be used 
very carefully at the close of 
each exercise. Remember that the bench and tools are 
to be left clean when you finish your work each day. 




Fig. 114. -Oiler. 




Fig. 115. — Bench brush. 



76. Handles. — Frequently handles are broken and 
should be replaced by new ones. An assorted stock of 




Fig. 116. — Socket chisel handle. 



these handles should be kept on hand, or where practi- 
cable they should be made by the students. 



96 



EDUCATIONAL WOODWORKING 




Fig. 117. — Turning handle. 




Fig. 118. — Carving tool handle. 




Fig. 119. — Tanged chisel handle. 




Fig. 120. — File handle. 



Fig. 121. — Adz-eye hammer handle. 

77. Steel Letters and Figures. — These are used in 
lettering and numbering finished work, or they may be 
used for other purposes. Eaeh letter is held in position 
and then struck with a hammer, making an indentation 
in the wood. A more perfect letter can be made on end 
wood than on parallel fibers. They are made in assorted 
sizes from ^ of an inch to h" . 



FOR HOME AND SCHOOL 



97 



78. Trimmer. — A trimmer is a tool used in trimming 
end wood either squarely across the fibers, or at an angle. 
They are made so the cut can be adjusted at any angle 
from 30 to 150 degrees. There are many styles and 
makes of trimmers on the market at the present time. 




Fig. 122 a. — Wood trimmer. 



One of the best made is the Fox, shown in Fig. 122 a. It 
is built upon the mechanical principle of a shearing cut, 
the knife shearing against the point of a gauge which is 
made to swing about a pivot in the arc of a circle. The 
gauge and knife are the most vital parts of the trimmer 
and should be kept in perfect order. Make thin cuts and 
keep the knife sharp. 



11 




Fig. 122 b. — Wood trimmers. 
98 



PART II 

Woodworking Machines 

79. Work. — The overcoming of resistance of any 
kind through space is called work. It implies a change 
of position. The fundamental formula for work, there- 
fore, is 

IF (Work) = F(Force) x s(Space). 

80. Energy. — The capacity of a body for doing work 
is called energy. It is measured by the amount of work 
that can be done by that body. The unit of work is 
also the unit of energy. Energy is manifested in many 
forms, but in our work on machines we refer to mechan- 
ical energy. 

81. Power. —The rate at which any agent, such as 
steam, electricity, animal force, etc., does or has the 
capacity to do work is called power, and is measured 
by the amount of work that it does or has the capacity 
to do in a given unit of time. The formula by which 
power is determined is represented thus : — 

P(Power) = ^ Work ). 
*(Time) 

The unit in which power is estimated is called horse 
power. A horse power (H.P.) is the power to do 33,000 
foot pounds of work per minute, or 550 foot pounds per 
second of time, — i.e. the power equivalent to raising 
33,000 pounds 1 foot in 1 minute against the force of 

LOft. " 



100 EDUCATIONAL WOODWORKING 

gravity. It was established by James Watt, the in- 
ventor of the steam engine, who considered that a horse 
could do this amount of work per minute and introduced 
this term as the unit of measure. It is probable, how- 
ever, that the average horse has not that amount of 
power. 

In manual training work steam, gas, or electric power 
is used to run the woodworking machines. Electricity is 
preferred on account of its quiet, ease of manipulation, 
economy of space, and cleanliness. Gas is used exten- 
sively, but is not as desirable as electric power. Many 
manual training plants are also furnished with steam 
power. 

A manual training shop should be equipped with the 
following power machines: 1 band saw (2 to 3 H.P.) 
1 scroll saw (2 H.P.), 1 swing saw (1 to 2 H.P.), 1 com- 
bination saw bench (2 to 4 H.P.), 1 single surfacer 
(4 H.P.), 1 jointer (2 H.P.), 1 grindstone (J H.P.), 20 
10" swing wood turning lathes, and 1 pattern makers' 
lathe (2 H.P.). For running this amount of machinery 
the writer would recommend two lines of shafting, one 
for the lathes and one for the other machines. Let the 
lathe shaft be driven by a 16 H.P. electric motor and 
the shaft which runs the other machines by an 18 H.P. 
motor. 

Many schools are now equipped with an electric light 
and power plant. A combined engine and dynamo, like 
Fig. 123, is desirable for this work. To furnish power 
sufficient to run 1000 16-candle-power lights, 2 arc 
lights for the stereopticon lanterns, 1 16-H.P. motor for 
the lathes, and 1 18-H.P. motor for the other machines, 



FOR HOME AND SCHOOL 



101 




Fig. 123. — Engine and dynamo. 




Fig.592 A. 



Fig. 124. — Electric motor. 



102 EDUCATIONAL WOODWORKING 

would require a 200-H.P. engine and a 125-kilowatt 
generator. This estimate* is based upon the assump- 
tion that the generating set should be large enough to 
furnish all of the power at one time, but it would seldom 
be necessary to use all of the power at one time, so that 
possibly a 100 kilowatts generator would develop suffi- 
cient power. To furnish sufficient power to operate the 
light and power plant indicated above, The Ridgway 
Dynamo and Engine Company, Ridgway, Pa., recom- 
mend a McEwen simple direct connected engine and a 
Thompson-Ryan direct connected generator with the 
following specifications: — 

Specification for Engine 

The engine to be capable of developing 200 indicated 
horse power when cutting off at ] stroke, with an initial 
steam pressure of 90 pounds in the steam chest. 

Diameter of cylinder . . 17 inches. 

Stroke 16 inches. 

Speed 250 revolutions per min. 

Diameter of governor wheel . 66 inches. 

Face of governor wheel . 14 J inches. 

Diameter of steam pipe . 6 inches. 

Diameter of exhaust pipe . 7 inches. 

Length of engine over all . 12 feet. 

Width of engine over all, in- 
cluding generator and out- 
board bearing . . .10 feet. 

Shipping weight of engine complete, including sub- 
base, outboard bearing, and extended shaft, 21,200 
pounds. 



FOR HOME AND SCHOOL 103 



Specification for Generator 



The generator to have a rated capacity of 125 kilo- 
watts when running at its normal speed. 



250 volts. 

250 volts. 

500 amperes. 

250 revolutions per min. 

30 inches. 

35 inches. 

5 feet. 

10. 



Voltage at no load 

Voltage at full load 

Current at full load 

Speed . 

Diameter of armature 

Length of armature 

Width of generator 

Number of poles . 

Number of carbon brushes . 30. 

Shipping weight of generator 9200 pounds. 

Current density in armature 900 cir. mils per ampere. 

Current density in field coil 1200 cir. mils per ampere. 

Current density in brushes . 3 amperes per sq. in. 

The generator will run at the above rated capacity for 
24 hours, with a rise in temperature not exceeding 
75° F. above the surrounding atmosphere. 

The commercial efficiency (the ratio of the energy 
delivered by the generator to that applied to it), under 
the conditions of speed and load given below, should not 
be less than the following : — 

Speed 250 revolutions per minute. 
Load 62i k. W. Efficiency, 90.3 % . 
Load 93| K. W. Efficiency, 91 .5 % . 
Load 125 K.W. Efficiency, 92%. 

The generator is able to deliver 25% more than its 
full rated load for two hours, and 75 % more than its full 
rated load momentarily, without injuriously heating or 



104 



EDUCATIONAL WOODWORKING 



sparking and without requiring a change in the position 
of the brushes. 

Other large manufacturers make similar recommenda- 
tions. If it is not advisable to put in a power plant, 
power can be secured from the local plant to operate 
motors in the manual training shop. 

82. Band Saw. — A band saw is a power saw that can 
be used for a wide range of sawing. It cuts rapidly and 

accurately, and is simple in 
construction. Band saws are 
made in the following sizes: 
30" (diameter of wheels over 
which the band saw travels), 
34", 36", 38", 40", and 42". A 
band saw, like every other tool 
or machine, needs to be prop- 
erly adjusted to do a given 
piece of work, and it should 
receive proper care and atten- 
tion at all times to be the 
most efficient. There is con- 
siderable stretch, which is 
called surplus elasticity, to a 
new band saw and on this ac- 
count the saw should receive very careful use at first. 
The speed for the tight and loose pulleys should not be 
more than 400 revolutions per minute. The tension of 
the saw must be perfect and uniform, and the saw 
should run without vibrating. 

83. Scroll Saw. — This saw is intended for sawing 
both inside and outside curves. It should have a 




Fig . 1 25 . — Ba 1 id saw . 



FOR HOME AND SCHOOL 



105 



tilting table so that curves can be sawed at an angle if it 

is desired. This saw, like the band saw, must have the 

proper tension. The driving pulley 

(8J" x 3") should make about 800 

revolutions per minute to give the 

proper speed. The saw blades are 

made in different sizes. A \" ', 16" 

long, is a good size for ordinary 

work. 

84. Swing Saw. — This saw is 

used in cross cutting lumber. It 

is especially 
adapted for 
use in getting 
stock ready 
for class use, 
or where lum- 
ber is to be cut into equal lengths. 
Swing saws are usually hung to 
the ceiling, although they may be 
made to swing from the wall or 
from under the table. The con- 
struction of the swing saw is 
shown in Fig. 127. They are made 





Fig. 126. — Scroll saw. 




Fig. 127. — Swing saw and table. 



106 



KIHM ATlONAL WOODWORKING 



in different lengths, but the regular length is 7 feet 2 
inches from the base of the hangers to the centre of the 
arbor. They arc made to swing cither right or left 
handed. The 4 regular size of the saw used is 14" in 
diameter. The speed of the tight and loose pulleys 
(10" by 5") should be 400 revolutions per minute. 

85. Combination Saw Bench. - - The combination saw 
bench is a practical, all-round machine, and to be most 

efficient should 
embody all the 
convenienc es 
and attachments 
required for gen- 
eral work to ac- 
curate lines. It 
can be used for 
ripping, cross- 
cut ting;, and 




Fig. 128. — Saw bench. 



grooving or da- 



doing. The best 
saw tables arc provided with three gauges, — one slitting 
gauge, arranged to tilt to 45 degrees or less for bevel 
sawing, one adjustable, and one stationary cut-off gauge. 
The countershaft is placed on the floor about five feet 
from the centre of the arbor, thus leaving the to]) of the 
table free from belting. The speed of the tight and 
loose pulley (12" x 6 J") on the countershaft should make 
600 revolutions per minute. Patent groovers or dado 
heads as shown in Fig. L29 are used when grooving is 
to be done. These groovers will cut a perfect groove 
with or across the grain, if they are in perfect condition. 



FOR HOME AND SCHOOL 107 

Outside cutter. Inside cutter. Outsile cutter. 





Sample of work made with 
groover head. 



Fig. 129. — Patent groover or dado heads. 

They are dangerous to use 
and one must handle them 
with great care. 

86. Saw Guard. - - There 
is danger in operating a rip 
saw, or in using any power 
saw for that matter, and one 

cannot be too careful in using every precaution against 

accidents. The saw guard 

may help to prevent acci- 

pieces of wood from flying 

sawdust from flying into the 

abling him to see his work. 

This guard should be 

used by all means in 

a manual training 

shop, where unskilled 

people use the saw. 
87. Circular Saws. 

— A circular rip saw 

and a circular cross- Fig. 130. — Saw guard. 



shown in Fig. 130 
dents. It prevents 
back and keeps 
operator's face, en- 




108 



EDUCATIONAL WOODWORKING 



cut saw work on the same principle as ordinary rip and 
cross-cut saws work, and they are sharpened practically 
the same. The mandrel (sometimes called arbor) of a 
circular saw is the spindle to which the saw is fastened, 
and is run by means of a pulley which is connected 
with the driving pulley. The mandrel should be kept 
level and should be kept well oiled. Do not screw 
the saw too tightly on the mandrel, for it may heat and 
cause the saw to bind, or buckle. The saw should fit 
the mandrel perfectly true, when in place, so that every 
tooth will cut. If the saw heats too much at the center, 
it needs more set. If it heats at the rim, the backs of 
the teeth may be too high, or the saw may not run true. 
As a rule thick saws are more successful than thin saws, 
for it requires more than ordinary skill to successfully 
operate a thin saw. The greater the speed, the thicker 
the saw should be. The following table may be helpful 
in selecting circular saws: — 



Diameter 


English Gauge 




Size of Hole 


3" 


21 . J" 


4" 


19 






3ff 
4 


5" 


19 






3// 

4 


6" 


18 






3ff 

4 


7" 


18 






3// 

4 


8" 


18 






7 " 
8 


9" 


17 






7 ft 
8 


10" 


16 






1" 


11" 


16 






1" 


12" 


15 






1 Iff 
1 "8" 


14" 


15 






U" 

A 8 


16" 


14 






11" 

2 8 


18" 


13 






11" 
1 4 



FOR HOME AND SCHOOL 



109 



A saw is right-handed when it turns towards you as 
you stand in front of it, the gauge being on the left-hand 
side of the saw. If the gauge is on the right hand of the 
saw, it is a left-handed saw. The most efficient saw is 
one that cuts the fastest and smoothest with the least 
expenditure of power. 

88. The Speed of Circular Saws. — As a rule the rim 
of a circular saw should travel about 9000 feet (nearly 
two miles) per minute. Saws differ in diameter, and in 
order to get the correct speed different revolutions must 
be made, a small saw making a greater number of revo- 
lutions per minute than a larger saw. A saw 12" in 
diameter is about 3 feet in circumference and must 
make 3000 revolutions per minute in order to have the 
correct speed. If the speed of a saw is too high, the saw 
will not cut well, for it will heat and buckle and will not 
run true. It is also very dangerous. On the other 
hand, saws run at too low a speed will not work well. 
The following table gives the speed at which circular 
saws should be run : — 



Table of Speed of Circular Saws 



Size or 

Diameter 

of Saw 


Rev. 
per Min. 


Size or 

Diameter 

of Saw 


Rev. 
per Min. 


Size or 

Diameter 

of Saw 


Rev. 
per Min. 


Size or 

Diameter 

of Saw 


Inches 


Speed 


Inches 


Speed 


Inches 


Speed 


Inches 


8 


4,500 


26 


1 .384 


42 


870 


58 


10 


3,600 


28 


1,285 


44 


840 


60 


12 


3,000 


30 


1,200 


46 


800 


62 


14 


2,585 


32 


1,120 


48 


750 


64 


16 


2,222 


34 


1,050 


50 


725 


66 


18 


2.000 


36 


1,000 


52 


700 


68 


20 


1,800 


38 


950 


54 


675 


70 


22 


1 ,036 


40 


900 


56 


650 


72 


24 


1,500 













Rev. 
per Min. 

Speed 

625 
600 
575 
550 
545 
529 
514 
500 



110 



EDUCATIONAL WOODWORKING 



89. Rules for Calculating the Speed of Saws, Pulleys, 
and Drums. — 

Problem 1. The diameter of the driven being given, 
to find its number of revolutions. 

Rule. — Multiply the diameter of the driver by its 
number of revolutions, and divide the product by the 
diameter of the driven; the quotient will be the number 
of revolutions of the driven. 

Problem 2. The diameter and revolutions of the 
driver being given, to find the diameter of the driven, 
that shall make any given number of revolutions in the 
same time. 

Rule. — Multiply the diameter of the driver by its 
number of revolutions, and divide the product by the 
number of revolutions of the driven; the quotient will 
be its diameter. 

Problem 3. To ascertain the size of the driver. 

Rule. — Multiply the diameter of the driven by the 
number of revolutions you wish it to make and divide 

the product by the 



revolutions of the 
driver; the quotient 
will be the size of 
the driver. 

90. Single Sur- 
facer. — This ma- 
chine is not abso- 
lutely necessary in 
a manual training 
shop, yet it is very 
useful. It is built 




Fig. 131.— Single surfacer. 



FOR HOME AND SCHOOL 



111 



with special reference to doing smooth work on wood, 
from T y to 6" in thickness. Surfacers are made in 
16", 20", and 24" widths. The tight and loose pulleys 
(10" by b\") on the countershaft should make 800 
revolutions per minute. A machine like this should 
never take the place of work that should be done by 
hand, yet very often it is most practicable to have the 
benefits of such a machine. With it old stock can be 
worked up and used, thus saving much in the expense 
account. 

91. Jointer. — The jointer is a machine used, as its 
name implies, in squaring, smoothing, and taking the 
wind out of timber, 



glue- jointing, bevel- 
ing, chamfering, rab- 
beting, molding, 
tonguing and groov- 
ing, beading, corner- 
ing, cross graining, 
tenoning, etc. It has- 
attachments and adjustments for all of these kinds of 
work, thus making it a very valuable machine in a manual 
training equipment. Jointers are made in different 
sizes. A 12" cut is about the right size for this work. 
The speed of the tight and loose pulleys should be 900 
revolutions per minute. The jointer is a dangerous 
machine to use, and one cannot be too careful in oper- 
ating it. 

92. Wood-turning Lathe. — There are many different 
makes of wood-turning lathes on the market at the pres- 
ent time. One of the most popular makes for manual 




Fig. 132. — Jointer. 



112 



EDUCATIONAL WOODWORKING 



training work is the Reed 10" swing lathe, shown in Fig. 
133. A sectional view of the headstoek is shown in 
Fig. 134. These lathes are supplied with countershaft, 
large and small wood-turning face plates, pair of wood- 
turning centers, tee rest holder, three tee rests of different 
lengths, and blue print holder. At the close of each 
exercise in turning the student should dust off all parts of 
the lathe very carefully so that it is left in perfect order. 
In wood turning the speed of the lathe should be ad- 
justed to the size of the block that is to be turned. A 
small block should revolve faster than a large one. The 
following is a table of speed used in wood turning: — 



Diameter of Work 


Revolutions per Minute 


Surface 
pe 


Speed in Feet 
M inute 


1 inch 


(About) 3000 


(About) 


785 


2 inches 


2500 






1308 


3 


1 500 






1178 


5 


1000 






1259 


8 


600 






1257 


12 


000 






1880 


18 


300 






1414 


24 


2:>0 






1571 



93. Belts. — A belt should be of a uniform quality 
and the laps in the leather should be near together. If 
the laps are far apart, it indicates that the leather was 
cut in long strips, which cannot give a good quality of 
belting, for in so cutting an inferior part of the hide 
must be used. " Short lap" belts are considered the 
best. Belts should be run with the grain or hair side 
next to the pulley, because 4 the hair side is the weaker 
side of the belting. By running a belt in this way the 
stronger side of the belt comes on the outside, where 
there is the greatest strain. They should be run hori- 



FOR HOME AND SCHOOL 



113 




Fig. 133.— Wood-turning lathe. 




irpi> 



Fig. 134. — Sectional view of headstock. 



114 EDUCATIONAL WOODWORKING 

zontally or at an angle, and with the drawing side under- 
neath in order to get the best contact with the pulleys. 
Care should be exercised in getting belts wide enough 
to do a given amount of work without slipping. A belt 
should not be overloaded and should not be run too 
tight. The surfaces of belts should be kept in a pliable 
condition by using a good quality of belt dressing. 

The strength of good leather belting is estimated at 
from 4000 to 4500 pounds per square inch of section. 
A well-laced joint is about one third as strong. The 
amount of space covered on a pulley is called the "arc 
of contact." When the pulleys are of equal sizes, the 
arc of contact is 180 degrees. If the pulleys are un- 
equal in size, the arcs of contact are unequal, the larger 
pulley having the greater arc of contact. The best 
speed for belts is about 4000 feet per minute. Large 
pulleys are more desirable than small ones if the belt 
speed is not too high. 

94. Formulae used in selecting Belts. — To determine 
the horse power of belts: — 

tt p _ Working Tension x Width x Speed 

33000 

To determine the working tension : — 

AX7 t . rp • Horse Power x 33000 

Working lension = 

6 Width x Speed 

To determine the width required to transmit given 
horse power: — 

w .,,. Horse Power x 33000 

Width = 



Speed x Working Tension 

To determine speed : — 

Horse Power x 33000 



Speed = 



Width x Working Tension 



FOR HOME AND SCHOOL 



115 



95. Belt Lacings. — Belt lacings are strong leather 
strings usually made from Calcutta cowhide, which is very 
tough, or from the best native cowhides, and are used 
in fastening the ends of a belt together. They should 
not be too large. A small lacing properly used is more 
effective than a large one improperly used. Figs. 135, 
136, 137, and 138 show different methods of lacing belts. 

Side next to pulley. 



Reverse side. 







1 




r" 




^ 








1 






* 




i> 






1 




€Z 




^ ^ 








1 






«£_ 




l> 






1 -■ 




€Z 




., ^ 








1 






* 




i> 






1 




cz 




^ 








1 




*^esa 


c 




^ 






1 




€Z 




Z£ 


( 






1 




I 


li 




i» 


) 




1 




r CZ 




^ 






(^ 


i 


J 






1 




G 




3 





C35«5 




Fig. 135. — Old style lace. 

96. Old Style Lace. 1 — Punch the holes as shown in 
Fig. 135, the first hole about one half an inch from edge 
and about seven eighths of an inch apart, the first row 
about five eighths of an inch from end of belt and the 
second row about three quarters of an inch back of the 
first row. Commence in the center and lace both ways 

1 The writer has permission from Bickford & Francis Belting 
Company, Buffalo, N.Y., to use the cuts showing different styles 
of belt lace; also much of the information on belts came from them. 



116 



EDUCATIONAL WOODWORKING 



to the edge of the belt with a single lace and then back 
to the center, having the lace straight on the pulley side 
of the belt and the cross on the reverse side of the belt. 
Use a small belt punch and small lacing. 

97. New Style Lace. — This style of lace is recom- 
mended as being one of the strongest and most serviceable 



Side next to pulley. 



Reverse side. 




Fig. 136. — New style lace. 

for general use. A much smaller hole and lace can be 
used and still give greater strength, and, according to 
the arrangement of the holes, the belt is weakened less 
than with almost any other method of lacing. 

For this method of lacing use i or T 5 g inch lace for 
single belts and f inch lace for double belts, except on 
extra large driving belts. Punch the first hole at least 
one half of an inch from the edge of the belt and about 
five eighths of an inch from the end. The centers of the 



FOR HOME AND SCHOOL 



117 



holes should be from three quarters to one inch apart, 
depending upon the width of the belt. The second row 
should be directly back of the first row and about three 
quarters of an inch distant. Commence at the center and 
lace both ways to the edge, using only the first row of 
holes. In working back to the center the second row 
of holes is used, giving a single strand of lace between the 





Fig. 137. — Single hinge lace. 



Fig. 138. — Double hinge lace. 



first and second rows and a double strand between the 
two rows nearest the end of the belt. The straight lace 
should always be on the side next the pulley and the 
cross lace on the reverse side. 

98. Single Hinge Lace. — In this style of lace a small 
hole and a small lace should be used. The holes should 
be about one half of an inch from the end and edge of the 
belt and the same distance apart. The corners should be 
taken off both sides of the ends of the belt to prevent 



118 



EDUCATIONAL WOODWORKING 



cutting the lace. Begin at the center and lace towards 
the edge, as shown in Fig. 137. Where belts run over 
small pulleys, this method is very effective, as the joint 
is very pliable. 

99. Double Hinge Lace. — The same size punch and 
lace should be used as in the single hinge joint. The 
first row of holes should be about one half of an inch 
from the edge and end of the belt and three quarters to 

one inch apart. The second 
row should be about three 
quarters of an inch back of the 
first row and arranged as shown 

Fig. 139. -Belt hook. in F j g _ ^ page 117 

100. Belt Hooks. — Belt 
hooks are metallic hooks used 
in fastening the ends of a 
belt together. They are es- 
pecially desirable on short 
belts because they will not 
stretch. 




Fig. 140. — A simple method for lining 
up quarter twist belts. A, driving 
pulley; B, driven pulley; C, driv- 
ing side of belt; 1>, driven side of 
belt; E, driving side driven pulley; 
F, Driven side driving pulley. 




M- 



- N 




PART III 

Wood 1 (Outline Study) 

I. Classification of trees as to kinds of leaves and 
structure of wood. 
A. Coniferous trees (needle-leaved, naked-seeded, 
such as pines, cedars, etc.), soft woods. 

1. Bark — outside or protecting tissue, thick- 

est and roughest near the base, forms 
about 10 per cent of the entire trunk in 
space. 

2. Pith or medulla — thickness varying from 

I of an inch in Norway pine to ^V of an 
inch in cypress. 

3. Sap wood — the living portion of the 

tree — composed of many-sided, thin- 
walled cells — the zone next to the bark 
containing about 50 annual rings — 
wood light in color — cells very active 
and very numerous — assist in the life 
processes of the tree. In old trees about 
40 per cent sapwood, in young trees 
nearly all of the trunk sapwood. 

4. Heart wood — the inner zone — fibrous 

bundles — the darker part of the log — 
cells lifeless — gives strength to the tree. 

5. Annual rings — concentric rings one of 

which is added yearly — seen on the 



1 For " Key to the More Important Woods of North America, " 
see Appendix A, page 233. 

119 



120 EDUCATIONAL WOODWORKING 

cross section of a log. By counting 
these rings the approximate age of a 
tree may be determined. 

6. Spring and summer wood — the inner, 

softer, lighter-colored part of the annual 
ring caused by rapid growth called spring 
wood — the outer, or peripheral, firmer 
and darker-colored portion of the annual 
ring, caused by slower growth, called 
summer wood. 

7. Anatomical structure — very porous — little 

tubes arranged in straight radial rows, 
resin ducts found in summer wood — 
cells long with pointed ends — dark lines, 
called medullary rays, run radially 
from the center toward the bark — ■ 
structure simple and regular — growth 
stops during the winter. 

B. The dicotyledonous, or deciduous trees (with 

two seed leaves, broad-leaved trees, such as 
oak, maple, beech, etc.). 

1. Bark, pith, sapwood and heartwood ar- 

ranged the same as in coniferous trees, 
having the same function. 

2. Color — varies in different trees. 

3. Wood — translucent — exposure to air and 

sunlight changes color — kinds of wood 
sometimes distinguished by odor, such as 
cedar, pine, oak, etc. 

C. The monocotyledonous trees (with one seed 

leaf, such as palms, yuccas, etc.). 
1. Structure — bundles of tissue arise, placed 
irregularly in the soft tissue or pith, 
extend from the apex of the leaf to the 
small ends of the roots — each new leaf 
has its own bundles of tissue in the stem. 



FOR HOME AND SCHOOL 121 

II. Composition of wood. 

A. Cells of sapwood — composed of cellulose, 

albuminoids, starchy matter, oils and water 
holding in solution sugars, gums, and acids. 

B. Cells of heartwood — walls thick and contain 

a dense substance called lignin which gives 
elasticity and hardness to wood. 

C. Elements found in wood — carbon, hydrogen, 

oxygen, nitrogen, sulphur, potassium, iron, 
phosphorus, calcium, sodium, silicon, and 
sometimes traces of other elements. 

III. Decay of trees. 

A. How detected — top branches refuse to 

send forth leaves — dead and broken 
branches — decay of bark. 

B. Causes — diseases of tree, parasitic insects, 

fungi, injury, etc. 

IV. Lumbering. 

A. Season for cutting trees — late fall and winter, 

because the growing and conducting cells 
are less active. 

B. How cut — with axes and saws — limbs 

trimmed — trunk of tree cut to desired 
lengths for logs — logs transported to saw 
mills and sawed into lumber — lumber 
piled up to season — lumber transported 
to dealers or to manufacturers. 

V. Properties of wood. 

A. Weight — wood substance about 1.6 times 
as heavy as water — depends upon the 
amount of moisture in the wood sub- 
stance — sapwood heavier than heartwood 
— the wood of saplings heavier than the 
wood of old trees — woods vary in weight 
from 30 to 40 pounds per cubic foot. 



122 



EDUCATIONAL WOODWORKING 



The following table gives the weight of 
kiln-dried wood of different species: — 

Weight of Kiln-dried Wood of Different Species 





Approximate 


(Water 62 pounds to cu. ft.) 


Specific 
Weight 


Weight of — 


1 cubic 
foot 


1000 
feet of 
lumber 


(a) Very heavy woods : 

Hickory, oak, persimmon, osage orange, 
black locust, hackberry, blue beech, 
best of elm, and ash 


0.70-0.80 


Pounds 
42-48 

36-42 
30-36 

24-30 

18-24 


Pounds 

3,700 


(6) Heavy woods : 

Ash, elm, cherry, birch, maple, beech, 
walnut, sour gum, coffee tree, honey 
locust, best of Southern pine, and 
tamarack 


.60- .70 


3,200 


(c) Woods of medium weight : 

Southern pine, pitch pine, tamarack, 
Douglas spruce, Western hemlock, 
sweet gum, soft maple, sycamore, 
sassafras, mulberry, light grades of 
birch and cherry 


.50- .60 


2,700 


(d) Light woods: 

Norway and bull pine, red cedar, cy- 
press, hemlock, the heavier spruce 
and fir, redwood, basswood, chestnut, 
butternut, tulip, catalpa, buckeye, 
heavier grades of poplar 


.40- .50 


2,200 


(c) Very light woods: 

White pine, spruce, fir, white cedar, 
poplar 


.30- .40 


1,800 









B. Seasoning — giving up the moisture that is 
in the wood. 

The following table gives the number of 
pounds of water lost in drying 100 pounds 



of green wood in the kiln: — ■ 



FOR HOME AND SCHOOL 



123 



Pounds of Water lost in Drying 100 Pounds of Green Wood 

in the Kiln 







Sapwood or 


Heartwood 






outer part 


or interior 


(1) Pines, cedars, spruces, and firs . 




45-65 


16-25 


(2) Cypress, extremely variable . . . 




50-65 


18-60 


(3) Poplar, cottonwood, basswood . 




60-65 


40-60 


(4) Oak, beech, ash, elm, maple, 


birch, 






hickory, chestnut, walnut, and 


syca- 






more 




40-50 


30-40 







The lighter kinds have the most water in the sapwood, thus sycamore has 
more than hickory. 

C. Shrinkage — the change in size and shape of 
wood when moisture is given up, causing 
warping and checking — shrinkage greater 
in sapwood than in heartwood. 

The following table gives the approxi- 
mate shrinkage of a board, or set of boards, 
100" wide, drying in the open air: — 

Approximate Shrinkage of a Board, or Set of Boards, 100" wide, 
Drying in the Open Air 



(1) All light conifers (soft pine, spruce, cedar, cypress) 

(2) Heavy conifers (hard pine, tamarack, yew), honey 

locust, box elder, wood of old oaks 

(3) Ash, elm, walnut, poplar, maple, beech, sycamore, 

cherry, black locust 

(4) Basswood, birch, chestnut, horse chestnut, blue 

beech, young locust 

(5) Hickory, young oak, especially red oak 



Shrinkage 



Inches 

3 

4 

5 

6 
Up to 10 



D. Stiffness or elasticity — the rigidity of a stick 
of timber which causes it to be bent with 
difficulty. 



L24 EDUCATIONAL WOODWORKING 

LAWS 

1. Deflection varies directly as the cube 
of the length. 

'2. Doubling the width doubles the 
stiffness. 

:\. Doubling fche thickness increases the 
stiffness about eightfold. 

4. Stiffness varies with (he weight 
(heavier wood being stiffer than light 

wood). 

The modulus (measure) of stiffness or 
elasticity is determined by the formula — 

Wl s 

E (Modulus of elasticity) = __ • 

4 I)b<r { 

W = weighl or load ; / = length ; 

b = breadth; d = depth; I) = deflection. 

The number of pounds which will bend 
a piece of sawed timber by one inch is 
found by the formula — 

Necessary weight = — - — 

NOTE. — An allowance must be made on 
the strength of timbers because of the 
irregularities in the structure of the wood 
due to knots, cross grain, decay, etc. This 
allowance is called the "factor of safety." 
Only about one sixth or one tenth of the 
strength is considered safe. Timbers in a 
building are made from 6 to 10 times as 
heavy as the calculations require. When 
a stick has been bent beyond its "elastic 
limit" it still requires an increase of from 
30 to 50 per cent to the weight before 
the stick breaks. 



FOR HOME AND SCHOOL 



125 



The following table gives the general 
averages of the stiffness of dry wood: — 

Table of Stiffness (Modulus of Elasticity) of Dry Wood. — 
General Averages 





Modulus of 
elasticit v 

E- WlA 
4Z)6d» 

per square 
inch 


Approximate weight which 

deflects by 1 inch ;t piece 


Species 


1 by 1 inch 

and VI 
inches long 


L' l>v 2 inches 

.Mid 10 

feet tony 


(1) Live oak, good tamarack, 
longlcaf , Cuban, and short - 
leaf* pine, good Douglas 
spruce, western hemlock, 
yellow and cherry birch, 
hard maple, beech, locust , 
and the best of oak and 
hickory 


Pounda 
1,680,000 

1,100.000 

1,100,000 
1,100,000 


rounds 

3,900 

3,200 

2,500 
1 2,500 


Pounds 

62 


(2) Birch, common oak, hick- 

ory, white and black 
spruce, loblolly and red 
pine, cypress, best of ash, 
elm, and poplar and black 
walnut 

(3) Maples, cherry, ash, elm, 

sycamore, sweetgum, but- 
ternut, poplar, basswood, 
white, sugar and bull pine, 
cedars, scrub pine, hem- 
lock, and fir 

(4) Box elder, horse chestnut, 
a number of western soft 
pines, inferior grades of 
hard woods 


51 

40 
40 



E. Cross-breaking or bending strength. — 



LAWS 



1. The strength of a timber varies ap- 
proximately with the squares of the thick- 



1 L<ss than. 



126 



EDUCATIONAL WOODWORKING 



ness and decreases directly with increasing 
length. 

2. Seasoning increases, moisture de- 
creases, the strength. 

3. Knots and cross grain weaken the 
holding power of timber. 

The cross-breaking strength, or "modulus 
of rupture " is obtained by means of the 
formula: — 

3WI 



Strength of extreme fiber = 



2 fed 2 



The following table gives the strength of 
well-seasoned, select pieces, load acting in 
the middle of the block, which is supported 
at the ends: — 



Strength in Cross-breaking of Well-seasoned, Select Pieces 




Strength of 

the extreme 

fiber 


Approximate weight which 
breaks a stick — 




._3Wl 

2bd* 

per square 

inch 






1 bv 1 inch 

and 1'J 
inches long 


2 by 2 inches 

and K) feet 

long 


(1) Robinia (locust), hard ma- 








ple, hickory, oak, birch, 








best ash and elm, long- 








leaf, shortleaf, and Cuban 


Pounds 


Pounds 


Pounds 


(2) Soft maple, cherry, ash, 
elm, walnut, inferior oak, 


13,000 


720 


570 


and birch, best poplar, 








Norway, loblolly and pitch 
pines, black and white 








spruce, hemlock, and good 


10,000 


550 


440 


(3) Tulip, basswood, sycamore, 
butternut, poplars, white 








and other soft pines, firs, 


6,500 


350 


280 



FOR HOME AND SCHOOL 



127 



F. Tension and Compression. — 

Tension: The amount of force required 
to cause the fibers to pull apart. 

Compression : The approximate weight 
required to crush a given block of wood 
endwise. 

Affected by the position of the fibers, as 
crossgrained, oblique position of grain, and 
straightgrained. 

The following table gives the ratio of 
strength in tension and compression: — 

Ratio of Strength in Tension and Compression, showing the 
Difference between Rigid Conifers and Tough Hard Woods 



Hickory . . . 

Elm 

Larch .... 
Longleaf pine 



R = 



Ratio : 

Tensile 

strength 



compressive 
strength 



3.7 

3.8 
2.3 
2.2 



A stick 1 square inch 

in cross section. 
Weight required to — 



Pull apart 



Pounds 

32,000 
29,000 
19,400 
17,300 



Crush 
endwise 



Pounds 

8,500 
7,500 
8,600 
7,400 



Strength in Compression of Common American Woods in Well- 
Seasoned Select Pieces 

[Approximate weight per square inch of cross section requisite to crush a piece 
of wood endwise.] 

Pounds 

(1) Black locust, yellow and cherry birch, hard maple, 

best hickory, longleaf and Cuban pines, and 
tamarack 9,000 + 

(2) Common hickory, oak, birch, soft maple, walnut, good 

elm, best ash, short leaf and loblolly pines, western 
hemlock, and Douglas fir 7,000 + 

(3) Ash, sycamore, beech, inferior oak, Pacific white 

cedar, canoe cedar, Lawson's cypress, common red 
cedar, cypress, Norway and superior spruces, 
and fir 6,000 -f 



128 EDUCATIONAL WOODWORKING 

Pounds 

(4) Tulip, basswood, butternut, chestnut, good poplar, 

white and other common soft pines, hemlock, 
spruce, and fir 5,000 + 

(5) Soft poplar, white cedar, and some Western soft pines, 

and firs 4,000 + 

G. Shearing — the breaking of wood along the 
fibers, as the shearing of a mortise in a 
mortise-and-tenon joint. Green wood 
shears more easily than dry wood. 
H. Cleavability — that property by virtue of 
which the fibers can be split, as with an 
ax in splitting stove-wood. Cleavage along 
the radius is easier than along the tangent 
of the block, also easier in green wood than 
in dry wood. 

I. Flexibility — that property of wood by virtue 
of which it can be bent, as hickory — hard 
woods more flexible than soft woods — 
moisture increases flexibility — knots and 
cross grain diminish flexibility. 

J. Toughness — a combination of strength and 
pliability, as in hickory — woods that offer 
great resistance to longitudinal shearing 
and tension. 



PART IV 
Fastening Devices Used in Wood Construction 

Nails and Nailing 

We read that " a small, pointed piece of metal, usually 
with a head, to be driven into a board or other piece of 
timber, and serving to fasten it to other timber, or left 
projecting as from a wall, to hang any thing upon" is 
a nail. There are many kinds of nails, and they are 
named either from the use to which they are applied, or 
from their shape. According to the United States 
Patent office nails are classified as cut, wrought, horse- 
shoe, shoe, barbed, composition, button, carpet, coffin, 
sheathing, galvanized, harness, leather work, picture, 
siding, slating, trunk, upholstery, weather tiling, and 
screw nails. 

Before the beginning of the nineteenth century nails 
were usually made by hand forging. A large part of this 
work was done by women and children, and their poverty 
and degradation is one of the saddest phases in the history 
of English industrial life.. In those days nails were 
expensive and consequently were not used as extensively 
as they are at the present time. Nails were first made 
by machines in the United States, and in fact all of the 
more important varieties originated and developed here. 
This is a natural result, for, since colonial times, wood 
has been used extensively in the building of houses, 

k 129 



130 EDUCATIONAL WOODWORKING 

furniture, fences, etc., and as a demand arose for a certain 
kind of nail in the construction of certain things it was 
designed and wrought out of the most practical material 
which was available. Expense was not the first thing 
considered. Our forefathers did things in a practical 
way, even to the making of a nail. That nail had to 
possess strength, holding power, and lasting qualities, 
regardless of cost. We are told that the first cut nails 
were made in New England late in the eighteenth century 
by cutting strips from sheet metal and heading them with 
a hammer while held in a vise. Gradually the shape 
of these nails was changed to meet varied needs, and the 
demand increased so that it was impossible to make by 
hand all the nails that were needed. In 1810 a machine 
was invented in the United States which made nails at 
the rate of one hundred per minute. As a result nails 
grew cheaper and became popular fastening devices. 
During the past century about four hundred patents have 
been issued for improvements in the making of nails. 
They are now made very readily and with little ex- 
pense. 

The term "penny " is used to designate the size of cer- 
tain kinds of nails; thus, threepenny, fourpenny, six- 
penny, etc. The term " penny" when used in this way 
is supposed to be a corruption of "pound." A four- 
penny nail was such that one thousand of them weighed 
four pounds, eightpenny such that one thousand of 
them weighed eight pounds, etc. 

The most common forms of nails are the wire nails, 
cut nails, and wrought nails. The wire nail consists 
essentially of a cylindrical piece of wire of suitable length, 



3d fine. 



3d 
slating. 



1 inch 
lining. 




1 inch 
barbed roofing. 



8d 8d 8d 

common. barbed common common brads. 



8d 
finishing. 



w 

8d 
casing. 



8d 
flooring brads. 



Fig. 141. 



Steel wire nails. 
131 



132 EDUCATIONAL WOODWORKING 

with one end properly sharpened and the other end 
flattened in such a way as to form a head. A good wire 
nail has great holding power and is very durable. It may 
be clinched, which is often necessary, and this adds to its 
practical qualities. 

A cut nail, as its name suggests, is cut from iron or 
steel, as the case may be. The thickness of the metal 
out of which the nail is cut corresponds to the thickness 
of the nail to be made. These nails thus have two flat 
sides which are parallel. The two edges taper from the 
head of the nail toward the point, forming a wedge. The 
point and head of a cut nail are rectangular in shape with 
the wide part of one corresponding to the narrow part 
of the other. To avoid splitting the wood in driving a 
cut nail, the wide part of the point should enter the 
wood across the grain and never parallel with the grain. 
By driving the nail in this way the wedge acts in 
the direction in which the w T ood is strongest, that is, 
in the direction of the length of the fibers, and this 
increases the holding power of the nail. The cut nails 
have not such universal use as the wire nails.- 

The wrought nails are made of WTought iron, which is 
the purest form of iron known in the arts. These nails 
are soft, very tenacious, and at a high temperature maybe 
welded. They are used where clinching is desired. One 
extensive use of these nails is in the hanging of barn 
doors with strap hinges. 

To drive a nail, hold it between the fingers and thumb 
of the left hand in the desired position, grip the hammer 
near the end of the handle with the right hand, and, with 
"s, free movement of the right arm from the elbow rather 



o 


— 1 


83 


■D 


5 , 


a 


Cfq J4 

® Ft 


3 




o 




J3 -^ 



a — h»t^ct»w 



N! 5s^ 



IBiSWBM^ & t 



S^] St ^ 





134 EDUCATIONAL WOODWORKING 

than from the wrist, strike the head of the nail squarely 
with a quick, hard blow with the whole face of the ham- 
mer rather than with one edge. Repeat, driving the 
nail a little deeper into the wood at each stroke. The 
last stroke of the hammer is an important one, for it 
should send the nail into the wood so that the top of the 
nail head is even with the surface of the wood, and the 
stroke must be made in such a way that the hammer does 
not mar the wood. Sometimes in driving brads a nail 
set is used to drive the head beneath the surface of the 
wood. The holding power of a nail is increased if it is 
driven in the wood at a slight angle. Where several 
nails are used in fastening pieces of wood together, it is 
well to drive the nails in pairs in such a way that they 
form " dovetails" in the wood. They are able to resist 
a much greater strain when driven in this way, than 
when driven straight into the wood, for before the pieces 
can pull apart the wood must break, or the nails must 
bend, or both. 

To draw a nail, place a block of wood under the head 
of the hammer to lift it up to the height of the head of 
the nail and to protect the wood underneath. Allow the 
claw of the hammer to catch the head of the nail, and pull 
the handle of the hammer over in such a way as to raise 
the claw and the nail will come out. Try to draw the 
nail straight out to avoid breaking and bending the nail. 
To use a hammer, the most ancient of all tools, in a 
skillful way, so that it is made to do its work with effi- 
ciency, requires no small amount of training, and its use 
should be introduced early in connection with manual 
training work. 




3 



CO 



fa 



BBgg< 



&&m 



a— < 



135 



136 EDUCATIONAL WOODWORKING 

The Screw as a Fastening Device in Wood Construction 

Another very important fastening device in wood 
construction is the screw. The screw, as one of the 
mechanical powers, is a modification of the inclined plane, 
and may be conceived as a cylinder with a spiral ridge 
called the " thread" winding about its circumference. To 
show the children that this is a modified inclined plane, 
cut a right-angled triangle from a piece of paper and 
wind it around a lead pencil so that the hypothenuse 
of the triangle marks the spiral thread of the screw. The 
vertical distance between any two consecutive threads of 
the screw measured parallel to the axis is called the " pitch " 
of the screw, and the angle of the inclined plane measured 
between any two successive points is spoken of as the 
"inclination" of the screw. 

The screw is supposed to have been invented by 
Archimedes, a celebrated Greek philosopher, about 
250 B.C. He constructed an instrument for raising 
water to a higher level. This instrument was made by 
winding a flexible tube around a cylinder in the form 
of a screw. When the screw was placed in an inclined 
position, with the lower end immersed in water, by 
causing the screw to be revolved, the water was raised to a 
higher level. Archimedes is supposed to have invented 
this screw for the purpose of lifting water high enough 
to launch a large vessel built under his direction. The 
screw was used in Egypt in the days of Hero of Alexan- 
dria, and at the beginning of the Christian era was used 
for various purposes by nations on the shores of the 
Mediterranean. 



FOR HOME AND SCHOOL 137 

There are very many varieties of screws, but the wood 
screw, so called because of its exclusive use in wood, is 
the most common, and it has been made by machinery 
for many years. At first wood screws had blunt points, 
and it was necessary to make a hole in the wood before 
the screw could be driven. This, of course, had its dis- 
advantages, and, as a result, improvements followed. In 
1850 Thomas J. Sloan, a United States citizen, devised 
what is known as the gimlet-pointed screw and also the 
machinery for its construction. The threads of this 
screw were formed by cutting out the metal between the 
threads. This method of cutting tended to weaken the 
screw, so that when it was driven into hard wood it 
frequently broke. Now, by a system of rolling combined 
with compression, the threads are raised and all the 
metal of the wire out of which the screw is made is used 
in its construction. This makes a stronger screw and 
increases its holding power. 

Wood screws are usually classified as flat head, round 
head, oval head, fillistered head, Rogers' flat head drive, and 
diamond point oval head drive. In determining the size 
of a wood screw two things are to be considered — the 
length of the screw and the size of the wire out of which 
it is made. The length varies all the way from a quarter 
of an inch to six inches, while the size of the wire varies 
from naught to thirty. Screws are made of steel, but 
may be finished in a variety of ways. They may be bright, 
blued, brassed, bronzed, Japanned, lacquered, or tinned. 
The finish depends upon their use. 

The screw, when properly selected and driven, is capa- 
ble of resisting a much greater force than a nail. The 



138 



EDUCATIONAL WOODWORKING 






c 
c 




3 



.t 6 



O 





FOR HOME AND SCHOOL 139 

screw is a better fastening device than the nail, other 
things being equal, for when it works loose, it may be 
tightened, while nails have to be redriven. The use of 
screws, however, is not so great as the use of nails be- 
cause they are more expensive and it is more of an effort 
to drive a screw than it is to drive a nail. 

Screws are used in wood construction where there is 
a great strain and where nails will not hold. They are 
sometimes used for aesthetic effects. 

To drive a screw a screw-driver is used. This is a very 
common tool, but it is not always used properly. To 
understand and use any tool correctly, one must under- 
stand the function of the parts, and also the relation of 
the parts to the function of the tool. As a rule a good 
screw-driver has a long and slightly concave bevel which 
fits the slot in the screw, while as a rule a poor screw- 
driver has a short bevel and will press only on the top of 
the slot, causing it to slip. Such a screw-driver is not a 
desirable tool to use. A long screw-driver works much 
better than a short one. In theory one should keep the 
screw-driver in line with the screw, but in actual practice 
it wobbles, forming a circle as the screw turns, thus in- 
creasing the leverage. Now, the longer the screw-driver 
the larger the circle described, and the larger the circle 
the greater the leverage. On this fact is based the 
principle of the screw-driver bit which is used with a brace. 
With a brace and screw-driver bit one can drive a screw 
much faster and much easier than with an ordinary 
screw-driver. 

Sometimes soap is rubbed on a screw to make it drive 
easily, but this is not necessaiy when working with soft 



140 EDUCATIONAL WOODWORKING 

wood. It is quite a help when driving a long screw into 
hard wood. With hard wood it is well to bore a hole to 
receive the screw, but this must be done with discretion. 
The hole must not be too large nor too deep. It must be 
remembered that screws will not hold well in end wood. 
In order for them to do their work effectively they must 
be driven between the fibers. 

When two pieces of hard wood are to be fastened to- 
gether, it is we'll to make a hole in the outer piece that 
will allow the screw to slip through freely up to the head 
of (he screw, and when driven into the second piece the 
screw will act as a clamp, drawing the two pieces together. 
Usually a countersink is used in the hole before the screw 
is allowed to enter. This makes a hole so that the head 
of the screw enters the wood flush with the surface, or 
if may be driven below the surface of the wood so that 
the head can be covered up if desired. 

In rough work with soft wood a screw may be started 
and driven about halfway with a hammer and finished 
with a screw-driver ; but this method tends to lessen the 
holding power of the screw, for in driving the screw with 
a hammer, the fibers of the wood are broken so they 
cannot hold the screw sufficiently. 

In the use of screws, as well as in all other operations 
in wood construction, great care should be exercised. 
One must know when screws are needed as a fastening 
device, the kind and size to select, and how to drive them 
effectively. The work must be thoughtfully done in 
order to become more intelligent regarding materials 
and operations. A study of Fig. 144 will help in the 
selection of the right screw for a given purpo e. 



FOR HOME AND SCHOOL 141 

Glue as a Fattening Device in Wood Construction 

In wood construction, especially in joinery and cabinet- 
making, a process is involved known as gluing, whereby 
glue is employed to hold the different parts together. 
In the shop the technical processes of gluing must be 
emphasized, but in order that the pupil master the pro- 
cesses in an intelligent way, he must know what glue is, 
the different kinds of glue, how and of what made, and 
the uses of the different kinds. He must understand the 
nature of the wood to be glued. In short, to master a 
process, one must look intelligently for information re- 
garding the materials and tools employed, and then by 
associating this information with the process in actual 
practice an intelligent understanding of the principles 
of the process will follow. 

Glue is a viscous substance made from the scraps of 
hides, horns, hoofs, etc., which accumulate at large 
packing houses. These scraps are washed in limewater, 
then boiled and skimmed. When the liquid reaches a 
certain point, it is strained, cooled in moulds, cut into 
pieces, and dried upon nets. Glue is manufactured largely 
in the United States and in all countries where cattle are 
raised. In some countries, like France and Germany, a 
great quantity of glue is made from bones, but the quality 
is not as good. It is said that the best glue in the world 
comes from Scotland. 

In the manufacture of certain kinds of glue isinglass is 
used. Isinglass is a gelatine prepared from the air blad- 
der of such fish as the sturgeon, cod, weakfish, hake, etc. 
It is also one of the principal ingredients in prepared 



EDUCATIONAL W < (ODWl IRKING 



jellies, confections, and gumdrops. There is also .*i kind 
of isinglass Known as "Japanese isinglass." This is 
prepared from .*i seaweed. Most of the isinglass made 
for commercial use conies from Russia, Brazil, and the 
United States, 
[singlass is used in the manufacture of white fish glue, 

isinglass glue, : i n < I ir<ilrr/>roof glue. 

II' hih \ fish glue, or diamond cement, as it is sometimes 
called, is made of isinglass dissolved in alcohol. Isin- 
glass glue is made by soaking isinglass in cold waterj 
when the isinglass is swelled enough, it is put into spirits 
of wine and heated in a hot He plunged in .•> bath, with 
powdered chalk added. Waterproof glue is made by 

boiling two ounces of isinglass to ••> |>in! of skim milk 

until the requisite consistency is obtained. 

Marine glue is made of shellac and caoutchouc, equal 
parts, dissolved in separate portions of naphtha, and 
i lien mixed. Marine glue is insoluble in water and is 
therefore y\^'i\ Largely in shipbuilding. 

There is also an albumen glue which is made of pari ially 

decomposed gluten obtained I'roin wheat Hour in (lie 

manufad ure of starch. 

Caseine glue is manufactured from curds of milk. It 
is an excellent glue for manual training work. There is 
another article of a similar nature on the markel called 
dextrine glue,' i his is manufactured from potatoes and corn. 

The uses to which glue is pni are many. Anion*;' some 
of the more important might be mentioned, in addition 
to joinery and cabinetmaking, paper making, match 
making, bookbinding, in making sizing for paper hang- 
ing, etc. In the manufacture of hats and bonnets it is 



H)U. iiomi; AND SCHOOL 




used for stiffening straw, col, ton, etc. 1 1 is I he glue in I he 
straw that makes one's hat have a sticky feel when wet. 
(Hue conies fco us in flakes to be prepared lor use, or in 
liquid form ready lor use. For woodwork it is better 
to buy the ordinary flakes and prepare them as the glue 
is needed. There are different grades of glue, but it is 
well to buy ilic best grade, which costs about twenty 
cents per pound. A poor quality ol glue is worse than 
no glue at all. 1 1 is worl hless. ( rluc 
is prepared in ;i glue heater. 

Glue Heaters. A glue heater is noil i 

in^; more than a double boiler consisting 
of an outer boiler, called a jackei , in 

which water is boiled, or Ihroii'di which 

steam passes, and an inner boiler in 
which ihe glue is prepared. Fig. L45 pio. 140, Glue 
showsagluepotand jacket which is used , '" 1 : "" 1 j:irl " 
over a gas burner. En using this one must be very carei ul 

not to let 1 he water in the 

outer holler hoi! completely 

away and cause the glue to 

be burned. Add water when 

it is. needed, lor it boils away 

rapidly! When the glue 

reaches the right stage to be 

used, turn the gas under it 

very low, and, if the jacl e1 i 

nearly full of water, ii should 

last nearly all day wii hout I"' 

ing replenished. Where prac 

i'i'. in., steam glue beater. ticable a steam glue heater, 



/*^» ,. ' •— ; ;.-i-~-. 





144 



EDUCATIONAL WOODWORKING 




Fig. 147. — Contact 
glue heater. 



Fig. 146, or a contact glue heater, where the jacket 
comes in contact with a steam heater ring, Fig. 147, 
should be used for the sake of con- 
venience and economy. The steam 
can be taken from the heating plant, 
which would be a saving of gas. With 
steam there is no danger of burning 
i^ the glue. For our use a gluepot 
should have capacity for about two 
quarts of glue. If a steam heater is 
used, it should have . two half gal- 
lon pots so that one pot can be kept hot while the 
other one is in use. Often this is a saving of much 
time to be able to exchange a cold pot of glue for hot 
glue. 

In preparing glue the flakes are put in the gluepot 
and covered over with cold water and allowed to stand 
several hours so it will absorb a quantity of water, thus 
rendering it like jelly. Then it is heated until it becomes 
hot and thin enough to drip from the brush in a thread or 
stream. Care must be taken that it is not too thick 
nor too thin, and it must be applied hot. The gluepot 
must be kept clean. Care must be taken not to let the 
glue burn, for it burns easily if water is not kept in the 
outer vessel. Burning glue is very offensive and it can- 
not be used after it has been scorched, as its virtue is 
destroyed. It is not well to heat glue over and over again. 
After it has been heated two or three times it is well to 
clean the pot and make a fresh quantity, for repeated 
heatings tend to destroy the holding properties of the 
glue. 



FOR HOME ANL SCHOOL 145 

Parallel layers of wood may be glued together, but glue 
will not hold end woods. The surfaces which are to be 
fastened together must be planed true so that they fit 
perfectly. Glue is applied hot and quickly to each sur- 
face with a brush and then tht surfaces are clamped 
securely together. After about twenty-four hours the 
clamps may be taken off. The glue being hot and thin 
enters the pores of the wood, getting a foothold, and when 
it hardens forms a joint that is stronger than the wood 
itself. When the gluing is well done, the wood will 
break in other places before it will break at the glue 
joint. It is well to warm the wood before the glue is 
applied so that the glue is not chilled before the clamps 
are set. This, however, is not necessary if one works 
fast enough and in a warm room. Of course the sur- 
faces which are fastened together must be clean, i.e. 
free from dust, varnish, or anything that will not allow 
the glue to enter the pores of the wood. It is a good 
plan to clamp the pieces together to see that they fit 
and that the clamps work properly before the glue is 
applied. See that everything is ready, then apply the 
glue quickly and clamp before it "sets" on you. 

The clamps which are used for ordinary gluing are the 
bar clamps, hand screws, and the iron clamps. The 
price of these clamps depends upon the size and kind. 
When two edges are to be glued together, the faces should 
be planed after the gluing rather than before, for then the 
glue which is squeezed out by the pressure of the clamps 
can be removed and a perfect surface obtained. Care 
must be taken, however, that the grain of the wood in 
each piece runs in the same direction. 



146 EDUCATIONAL WOODWORKING 

There are many gluing exercises which can be intro- 
duced in woodwork, all of which tend to give a broader 
experience. Among some of these we might mention 
the bread board (used in cutting bread), which is made by 
gluing three (§" x 1.J" X 12") cherry strips with two (f" x 
1J" x 12") pine strips so that the strips are arranged 
alternately. After gluing, the board is dressed and then 
cut out in the form of an ellipse. There is something very 
fascinating about uniting woods of different color into 
one piece so that the glue which holds the wood cannot 
be seen. Boys are delighted when they can do this 
work. 

Another piece of work in gluing which is important 
is the chessboard. This is important because it teaches 
certain principles about building up a series of glue 
joints, how to prevent warping, and how to make a glue 
joint hold when it is necessary to glue end wood together. 
All of these are valuable problems to be worked out in 
wood construction. 



Wood Fastenings (dowels, pins, cleats, keys, and ivedges) 

Dowels are important fastening devices. They are 
turned wooden pins varying in diameter from y 3 g" to 1". 
They are made from different wood, white birch being 
the kind of wood that is used most. In cabinetwork 
the Y dowel pin is used most. They can be bought in 
bundles (500 in a bundle) and in 36" lengths. 

Dowel pins may be made by driving a small piece of 
wood through a hole in a "dowel plate." A dowel 
plate may be made by drilling holes, say J", f ", and J" in 



FOR HOME AND SCHOOL 



147 




11.H»lf Blind or 



Common Mortiw aniT«non « u Blind orCloiedflortise^Tenon (*, Tenon) 



15. Blind Housed 







S.KeyedTeno 








-|"y 


n 




-*=^ 


J "■■ 


... 


-tf 




I icfr * I 

^.Groove and Tongue 



1 1 1 1 


I 1*1 












r 


i i i i 



3. Cleat* 



A Plain Dovetail 




6. Half. Blind Dovetail 



9YYedged 
TQnon 













1 ° : 




J— u 













JWedqe Q ^<j. Draw- bored »nd Pinned 

Common fastenings for joints. 



Nailed Brace 



Fig. 148. — Common joints and wood fastenings. 



148 EDUCATIONAL WOODWORKING 

diameter, through a cast steel plate that is from a J" 
to a \" in thickness. 

As to the method and use of dowel pins, pins, cleats, 
keys, and wedges, see Fig. 148, page 147. 

In designing joints and fastenings in wood construction 
Rankine has given five principles to be observed. They 
are: — 

1. "To cut the joints and arrange the fastenings so 
as to weaken the pieces of timber that they connect as 
little as possible." 

2. "To place each abutting surface in a joint as nearly 
as possible perpendicular to the pressure which it has to 
transmit." 

3. "To proportion the area of each surface to the pres- 
sure which it has to bear, so that the timber may be safe 
against injury under the heaviest load which occurs in 
practice, and to form and fit every pair of such surfaces 
accurately, in order to distribute the stress uniformly." 

4. "To proportion the fastenings so that they may be 
of equal strength with the pieces which they connect." 

5. "To place the fastenings in each piece of timber 
so that there shall be sufficient resistance to the giving 
way of the joint by the fastenings shearing or crushing 
their way through the timber." 



PART V 

Wood Finishing 

Aims. — There are two chief aims which should govern 
all methods of wood finishing, viz., preservation of wood 
and artistic finish. Wood exposed to atmospheric con- 
ditions (moisture being the greatest enemy to the pres- 
ervation of wood) without a suitable finish which will 
close the pores of the wood, and hence shut out the 
action of the atmosphere, will change in shape and 
color, and will soon decay. But with a proper treatment 
so that moisture cannot get into the pores, timbers will 
last for many years. If a block of maple is allowed to 
stand in a vat of boiling resin, for twenty-four hours, the 
pores become filled with the resin which preserves the 
wood against decay for ages. Not long since the writer 
saw this process of treating maple which was to be used 
under water. It is only a working out in another way 
of the principle of the closing of the pores in wood for 
preservation. A wood finish, then, to be most effective 
must possess this quality of preservation. 

But what constitutes an artistic finish? A piece of 
quartered oak is stained with a suitable weathered oak 
stain, rubbed down so that the grain is brought out, and 
then waxed to close the pores and to give a smooth finish. 
If this work is well done, we say that the oak has an 
artistic finish. One wishes to paint a house. Paints 
are selected which harmonize and are then applied, and 

149 



150 EDUCATIONAL WOODWORKING 

we say that the house has an artistic finish. Some 
models which are made in manual training are improved 
by decoration. This is especially true of some of the 
things that are made in soft woods. The ends of the 
book rack may be made more pleasing by some design 
put on in color. The design, however, must be appropri- 
ate, and the colors must be selected with great care. 
They must also be applied properly. When this is done, 
the book rack may have an artistic finish. There is, 
therefore, a wide difference in wood finishing. Some 
people prefer the wood finished in the natural color, 
others do a great deal of staining, while still others do a 
good deal in the way of applied design. 

The field of applied design is new in manual training 
work and is full of possibilities, but it should not be over- 
emphasized. It furnishes a happy relationship between 
the art teaching and the shop teaching. In this work the 
art teacher and the manual training teacher should work 
together in order to get the best results. It is not the 
purpose of the writer to go into the subject of applied 
design at this time, for it is too broad a subject to be 
treated here. 

The materials used in wood finishing may be classified 
as paints, which are opaque, and stains, oils, and varnishes, 
which are transparent. Paint is a substance composed 
of coloring matter, lead, and oil. When applied to wood, 
paints possess the quality of preservation. The only 
artistic element in paints is the color, or combination 
of color, which they may give. W. W. Lawrence & 
Co., Pittsburg, Pa., give the following color formulae for 
decoration : — 



FOR HOME AND SCHOOL 



151 



Pale Tints in Oil 

Buff White, yellow ocher, burnt sienna. 

Blue White, Prussian blue. 

Cream White, yellow ocher or medium chrome. 

Drab White, burnt or raw umber (for warm or 

cool drab). 

Fawn White, raw Sienna, vermilion. 

Gray White, ultramarine, lake. 

Gray White, burnt Sienna, indigo. 

Gray White, vegetable black, lake. 

Gray White, Prussian blue, Indian red. 

Lilac White, vermilion, ultramarine. 

Lavender White, Prussian blue, lake. 

Pink White, crimson lake. 

Pink White, vermilion. 

Pink White, Indian red. 

Peach White, vermilion, ocher, purple, brown. 

Salmon White, vermilion, ocher. 

Straw White, chrome, yellow. 

Stone White, ocher, umber (as in drab). 



Brown 
Brown 
Brown 
Chocolate 

Green 

Green 

Green 

Lead Color 

Orange 

Violet 



Deep Tints in Oil 

White, Prussian blue, Venetian red. 
White, purple, brown, lake. 
White, indigo, ocher, vermilion. 
White, lake, vegetable black, purple, 

brown. 
White, ocher, indigo. 
White, Sienna, Prussian blue. 
White, yellow, chrome, Prussian blue. 
White, black. 

White, orange, chrome, lake. 
White, vermilion, Prussian blue, lake. 



152 



I'.Din'A'rioNAi, w<)oi»\\oi;kin<; 



Paints consist essentially of bwo parts, the pigment, 
or coloring matter, and the vehicle, a liquid with which 
the various pigments are applied. A wax may also be a 
vehicle in spreading color, 

The pigments are varied m charactor, The whites 
are generally white I < *; i.< I , the yellows are ochers, chromato 
of lead, etc.) the reds are the red oxide <»l lead, ochers, 
oxides of iron, red oxide oi copper, vermilion, carmine, 
etc.! the blues are Prussian blue, ultramarine, etc.) the 
greens are verdigris, Parii green, borate <>!' copper, cobalt 
green, green lake, etc. j the bvowns are umber, hole, sepia, 
otc , the blacks are lampblack, bone black, graphite, 
etc. The charactor of the paint is determined by the 
vehicle used. II oil is used as a vehicle, the paints are 
oil paints, M water is used , I hoy are called wa1 er colors. 
When the colors are soluble, the preparation is more 
properly a stain, or dyo. Paints ave insoluble in the 
vehicle and ate opague, Stains and <li/<.; ave soluble m 
ihr vehicle and ave tvanspavent Stains alone have no 
preserving effects upon woods because they do not tend 
i ( » cli iso the i n ires oi the w< lod, 

Linseed oil (a yellow liquid obtained from flaxseed) 
i used in oil paints on account of its peculiar property 
of oxidizing to a resinous substance when mixed with 
pigments and spread with a brush in thin layers ovor 
surfaces, li may bo either in .'i raw state or boiled. 
The boiled linseod oil is made by boiling the raw oil with 
litharge and sulphate of zinc, The boiled oil dries more 
rapidly, is darker in color, and a little thicker than the 
raw oil. 

Paints and stains are usuallv ground in raw linseed oil 



FOR HOME AND SCHOOL L53 

and j >i 1 1' up in tin cans or other vessels for commercial 
purposes. The painter mixes these for use with either 
raw or boiled linseed oil. To these a thinner, such as 
turpentine, is used to give the required consistency. 
Sometimes driers are added to cause the paint to harden 
more rapidly. 

Mixing paints is an arl which should not be attempted 
in elementary manual training work. To meet this 
difficulty in elementary work prepared paints should be 
used. But the methods employed in mixing stains are 

not so difficult and should be taught in elementary 

work. 

HOW to pre pare Klaius 1 

Mhown Burnt umber, 2 turpentine. 

Red Burnt Sienna, 8 I urpenl ine. 

Green Sylvan green, turpentine. 

Black Drop black, turpentine. 

Varnishes. Varnishes are made from some hard 
gum, such as copal, rosin, etc., cut with turpentine, 

1 The colors used in preparing thei e tains can be boughl ground 
in oil and put up in pound cans. Use enough color to give the 
d< ired i hade By combining colors different colors and shades 
may be obtained. 

2 Uniber is ;i mineral pigmenl formerly obtained from CJmbria 
in Italy, from which its name is derived. The commercial supply 
now comes largely from the island of Cyprus. Small quantities 
are also found in Pennsylvania. When raw umber is highly heated, 
it gives ;i richer and deeper brown known ai burnl umb< i 

:i Sienna is :ui ocherous earth which comes from the province 
of Sienna in ftaly, from which its name is derived. In its natural 
state it, is known as raw Sienna. When highly heated a richer 
red is obtained, known as Inirnt Sienna 



154 EDUCATIONAL WOODWORKING 

alcohol, or other suitable solvent. Varnishes are pre- 
pared for commercial purposes and are put up in con- 
venient forms ranging all the way from one dollar to ten 
dollars per gallon. 

Shellacs. — Shellac is used extensively in manual 
training work. It is made from lac, or gum-lac, a resinous 
substance which comes from the branches of several 
trees, the most common of which are the Ficus religiosa 
(the religious tree of the Hindus), the Rhamnus jujuba, 
and the Croton lacciferum (behar-tree) . These trees 
grow in Siam, Assam, Pegu, Bengal, and Malabar. An 
insect (the female insect of Coccus lacca) punctures the 
bark of these trees for the purpose of depositing her 
eggs; the resinous substance oozes from the tree and 
hardens on the twigs. These twigs are broken off by the 
natives and dried in the sun. The dried twigs are called 
stick-lac. After the twigs have become thoroughly dry 
they are pounded to break the resinous substance from 
the twigs. The resinous substance after the twigs 
are removed is known as seed-lac. When seed-lac is 
melted, collected, and cooled, it is called lump-lac. 
Seed-lac is put into bags made of cotton and hung over 
a slow fire. When the resinous substance melts, the bag 
is twisted and the clean substance is allowed to flow over 
planks made of fig wood which are hard and smooth. 
The resinous substance cools on these planks, forming 
thin layers or scales known as shell-lac, or shellac. By 
passing chlorine, one of the most powerful of bleaching 
agents, through shellac the coloring matter is taken 
out, giving a substance known as bleached shellac, or 
white shellac. 



FOR HOME AND SCHOOL 155 

How to Prepare Shellacs 

Orange shellac . . . orange shellac, alcohol (wood 

or grain). 
Black shellac . . . orange shellac, lampblack, 

alcohol. 
White shellac . . . bleached shellac, alcohol. 

Bleached shellac should be put in alcohol as soon as 
possible after it is prepared. When exposed to air for 
a few days, it oxidizes and becomes insoluble. 

Fillers. — Many woods which have an open grain, 
such as oak, ash, etc., require a filler. A filler, as its 
name suggests, is a substance which is used in filling the 
pores of wood. They are made from such material as 
whiting, plaster of Paris, starch, etc., which are mixed 
with oil or turpentine. The filler is applied to the wood 
and when dry is rubbed down with fine sandpaper. This 
gives a smooth surface for the paints and varnishes. 

Specifications for Finishes 

Soft woods (pine, basswood, etc.) in natural color: — 

1. Wood perfectly clean and smooth. 

2. Apply with a soft brush one coat of hard oil, 
varnish, or shellac, and put aside to dry. 

3. Sand very lightly with No. 00 sandpaper. 

4. Apply another coat of hard oil, varnish, or shellac, 
and put aside to dry. If necessary, apply a third coat. 

Soft woods in color: — 

1. Wood perfectly clean and smooth. 

2. Apply one coat of stain (burnt umber, burnt 



156 EDUCATIONAL WOODWORKING 

Sienna, drop black, etc.) with a brush and put aside to 
dry for about twenty minutes. One coat of stain should 
be sufficient. 

3. With cotton waste or a soft cloth rub the stained 
surface until an even shade is produced, also see that the 
rubbing brings out the grain of the wood sufficiently. 

4. Apply a coat of hard oil, varnish, or shellac, and 
put aside to dry. When this is dry, apply a second and 
a third coat if necessary. 

Weathered oak : — 

1. The wood should be perfectly clean and smooth. 
Some stains will raise the grain of oak. This difficulty 
can be overcome by moistening the surface of the wood 
with a damp cloth. This will raise a fine thread-like 
grain which can be removed by sanding lightly with 
No. 00 sandpaper. 

2. Apply one coat of some good prepared weathered 
oak stain of suitable shade. There are any number of 
good prepared stains on the market at the present time. 
These prepared stains contain a filler which settles to 
the bottom of the can. The stain should be stirred before 
using until the filler dissolves. After applying the stain 
let it stand until dry. Some of these stains will dry in 
fifteen minutes, others should stand overnight to dry, 
or even longer. 

3. When dry, rub with waste or a soft cloth until the 
desired shade is produced. See that the grain is brought 
out properly. 

4. Using a soft cloth, rub with Johnson's prepared wax, 
or some good wax, until the desired finish is produced. 



FOR HOME AND SCHOOL 157 

Light oak : (a) Dull Finish : — 

1. See that the wood is perfectly clean and smooth. 

2. Apply one coat of light oak stain. When dry, 
sand lightly with No. 00 sandpaper. If necessary, 
apply another thin coat of stain. 

3. Apply a thin coat of shellac, either orange or white, 
and when dry, sand lightly with No. 00 sandpaper. 

4. Apply a coat of prepared filler colored to match 
the stain. Let dry and apply a coat of shellac. 

5. When dry sand again and apply another coat of thin 
shellac. If necessary, sand again and apply another 
coat of shellac, or some good hard oil or varnish. 

6. Rub the last coat with pulverized pumice stone 
mixed with raw linseed oil to a thin paste. In rubbing 
use hair cloth, or a soft cotton cloth. 

(b) Polished Finish : — 

1. Repeat 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6. 

2. Apply another coat of shellac, hard oil, or varnish, 
and when dry rub with pulverized rotten stone and water. 

3. Use a shellac pad. A shellac pad is made by 
wrapping a soft cloth around a small wad of waste. 
Pour a little shellac on the waste before drawing the 
cloth around it. In the process of rubbing the shellac 
should ooze through the cloth slowly. Sprinkle a little 
pulverized pumice stone over the surface to be rubbed. 
Dip the pad occasionally in boiled linseed oil. Care 
should be exercised not to use too much shellac. After 
a few trials excellent results will be obtained, giving a 
highly polished surface. 

Practically the same process is followed in finishing 
other hard woods. 



158 EDUCATIONAL WOODWORKING 

Polishing in the lathe : — 

1. See that the wood is perfectly clean and smooth. 

2. Apply boiled linseed oil with a soft cloth. Wood 
in motion. 

3. Use the shellac pad as described above until the 
desired polish is secured. 



FOR HOME AND SCHOOL 



159 




Fig. 148 a. — Wood-turning exercises. 




Fig. 148 b. — Knife work and joinery. 
160 




M 



Fig. 148 c. —Joinery. 
161 




Fig. 148 d. — Wood-turning exercises. 




Fig. 148 e. — Cabinet-making exercises. 
162 



PART VI 

Exercises 
A. Knife Work for Schools without Shops 

Tools. — Considerable work can be done in elementary 
woodwork in the regular schoolroom by using a whittling 
tray and the tools which accompany it, as shown in 
Fig. 149. The tray is designed for use on the desk top 




Fig. 149. — Whittling tray and tools. 

and is so constructed that it will not slip or mar the desk 
when in use. The tools which accompany the tray are 
the No. 7 sloycl knife, compasses, 2 triangles, rule, 
T-square, and try-square. A few small hammers should 
be in the equipment. 

Measuring and Lining (Optional) 

Stock: 1 ( T y r x 2" x 6") bass wood. 

The stock, or material, needed by each pupil is ex- 

163 



164 



EDUCATIONAL WOODWORKING 



pressed as above, -f/ is the thickness and should be 
stated first, 2" is the width, and 6" is the length. The 
figure 1 at the beginning indicates the number of blocks 
needed for each pupil. Basswood is the kind of wood to 
be used for this exercise. 1 

Top View 































1 












































i 












































— '-r 












































A 




























































































— > 


1 " 
■1 


< — 

































































































(Si 



_ ±- 



Bottom View 









































/A 




u 


^^ 





















































Fig. 150. — Measuring and lining. 

Place the tray on the desk, as shown in Fig. 149, and 
put the tools in the trough of the tray to make room on 
the working bed. Work the exercise as follows: — 

1. Place the T 3 g" x 2" x 6" block on the working bed 

1 If thin wood cannot be obtained from local dealers, it can be 
obtained in the form of "basswood tablets" from Milton Bradley- 
Company, Springfield, Mass., A. H. Pomeroy, Hartford, Conn., 
and others. 



FOR HOME AND SCHOOL 165 

of the tray with the long way parallel to the long way of 
the tray. 

2. With the rule and pencil lay off points 1" apart, 
beginning at one end of the block. Now go back and 
divide each inch into halves, then divide each half into 
quarters. (How many quarters in V ? In 6" ? etc., etc.) 

3. With try-square and pencil draw lines through these 
points across the face of the block. Get good lines, 
lines that are clean-cut and accurate. 

4. Repeat 2 and 3, drawing the lines the long way of 
the block. The face of the block is divided into \ ff - 
squares. 

5. In a similar way draw horizontal and vertical lines 
on the other side of the block. Draw the lines J" apart, 
forming \" squares. 

6. Draw the diagonals of all of the squares on this 
side of the block. 

The value of the above exercise is in learning to measure 
accurately and to draw lines that shall have definite 
meaning. Learn to use the tools correctly and with 
ease and rapidity. In everything that you do strive to 
master the best technique. Keep the block that you 
have used in this exercise for future use. 

Match Strike (Fig. 151) 

Stock: 1 ( T V'x5f x6") basswood. 
Supplies : No. 1 sandpaper, stain, glue. 

In the making of the match strike proceed as follows : 
1. Draw center line on the block of wood parallel 
with the length. 



166 



EDUCATIONAL WOODWORKING 




Fig. 151. — Match strike. 



2. Measure from the center line to get the width (2 J" 
each side of the center line) and draw lines parallel to the 
center line, as CH and AF. 

3. From points B and C as centers, with a 2 \" radius, 



FOR HOME AND SCHOOL 



167 



draw arcs which intersect above at D. From, point D 
as a center draw the arc CB. In a similar way draw arc 
AB. 

4. From point Fas a center with a radius of 5" 
draw arc HG. From point H as a center, and with the 
same radius, draw arc FG. From the same centers, with 
a radius of 4f ", draw 
arcs JK and IK 
which mark the 
curved boundaries 
of the sandpaper. 
Draw a straight line 
from / to J. You 
are now ready to 
do the cutting. 

5. Cutting ^ (first 
method). The cut- 
ting is done with a 
sloyd knife as shown 
in Fig. 152. Cut in 
the direction of 1, 
Fig. 152, then in the 
direction of 2, finishing the cuts towards 12. Cut in 
the direction of 6, 5, 4, and 3. Be very careful not to 
split the block of wood. Get good square edges, edges 
that are clean-cut. 

6. Cutting (second method). Follow the outline of 
the match strike very carefully with the point of the 
knife blade, making a perpendicular cut in the wood 
(7, Fig. 152). Repeat the cut, cutting deeper into the 
wood. Then make a diagonal cut, 8, and lift out the 




Fig. 152. — Cutting with knife. 



58 



1 101 'CATION A I, WOODWORKING 



shavings. Now make another perpendicular cut, 9, 
and then a diagonal cut, 10, lifting out t lu v shavings. 
Make anol her perpendicular cut, 1 1 , separating the waste 
lumber from the finished work. 

7. After all the cutting is done sand the edges and sur- 
faces a little, if it is necessary, with No. 00 sandpaper. 
Divide a sheet of sandpaper into lour equal parts. Fold 
one of these pieces around a block, known as a sand block, 
so thai the rough surface of the sandpaper is without. 
The sand block should be about ;" x ,r x 1". Sand 
back and forth parallel with the grain of (he wood. Be 
very careful not to round the corners and edges. Sand- 
paper should never be used in doing work that can be 
done with a cutting tool. 

8. Stain the block with burnt umber stain, covering 
all except the part which is to be covered with sand- 
paper. Apply the stain evenly with a brush. Let 
stand for fifteen minutes to dry. Hub with waste or a. 
soil cloth. This will bring out the grain of the wood 
and will help to give a smooth surface. Apply a thin 
coal of hard oil evenly with a brush. Let stand over 

night to dry, then apply a second coat if necessary to 
give a good finish. 

0. Bore hole used in hanging the match strike to the 
wall. In doing this be very careful not to split the 

block. 

10. Cut out a piece of No. 1 sandpaper to the desired 
shape, apply a thin coat of glue to the back o\' the sand- 
paper, and glue in place, (lamp between blocks over- 
night until glue hardens. Remove the clamps, ami the 

match st tike is completed. 



KOIt HOME AND SCHOOL 



109 




Fig. L53. 



Maicb strike. 



Another design for a match strike is shown in Fig. 
L53. This is made similar to the one shown above. 
The teacher and pupils together may work out differerrl 
designs. Wherever possible, it is advisable to encour- 
age work in original designing. 



170 EDUCATIONAL WOODWORKING 

Match Box (Fij;. 154) 
Slock : sec Fig, IT) I. 

Supplies: No. I sandpaper, burnt umber stain, hard 
oil, glue, Y 20 steel wire brads (J* length, 20 size of 
wire). 

In making the match box proceed as follows: — 

I hreet ions for Hack : — 

1. Draw center line parallel with the long way oi' the 

block. 

2. From (lie center line lay o\\ points on either side 

near (he lop and bottom. Draw Straight linos through 

the two points on either side oi the center line, forming 

the side lines o( (he hack. 

3. With compasses sel al \" radius draw around the 

right and left corners o( the top. 

1. Willi sloyd knife cut to linos, as shown in Fig. 

L52, ami sand. Bore a \" hole which is used in hanging 

the match box to the wall. Bore through the wood until 
(In 1 point o\ the hit pricks through the wood, then ( urn 

Ihe block and bore through to meet (la 1 cut already 
made. Ge1 a dean-cut hole without tearing the wood. 

Directions for Sides: — 

5, bay oil the lines for the sides as shown in Fig, L54, 

6, Cut to these linos and sand. 

Directions for Fronl and Bottom o{ Box:- 

7, bay off lines which will give the correct measure- 
ments for the front and bottom, as shown in Fig. lob 

S. (\it to these lines and sand. 



KOlt IIOMK AND SCHOOL 



171 



Match Box 




•A i*,4 



.J. 



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3. 



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ISandp^per 



oo 




Kio. 154. — Match box. 



Directions for putting Paris together: — 
9. The back is nailed to the sides and bottom, the 
ends to the bottom, and the front to the ends and top. 

Use \" 20 steel wire brads. Willi compasses set at j" 



172 EDUCATIONAL WOODWORKING 

step off points along the edges where the brads are to be 
driven. Do not drive the brads too near the corners, for 
the wood will split. Nail the parts together. In doing 
this do not mar the wood with the hammer. Drive the 
heads of the brads flush with the surface of the wood, 
then, with a fine nail set, set the heads of the brads just 
a little below the surface of the wood. 

Directions for Finishing: — 

10. Stain with burnt umber stain, use hard oil, and 
glue sandpaper in place. 

Whisk Broom Holder (Fig. 155) 

Stock: See Fig. 155. 

Supplies: J" 20 steel wire brads, No. 00 sandpaper, 
burnt Sienna stain, hard oil, varnish, or shellac. 

In the construction of the whisk broom holder proceed 
as follows : — 

Directions for Back : — 

1. Lay off center line parallel with the length of the 
back. From center line lay off the other necessary con- 
struction lines as shown in the drawing. 

2. With sloyd knife cut to these lines. 

Directions for Front and Sides : — 

3. In a similar way lay off and cut out the front. 

4. Cut the sides to the desired length and angle, as 
shown in the drawing. 

Directions for putting Parts together : — 

5. The back and front are nailed to the sides with 
¥ 20 steel wire brads. The brads are to be driven three 



FOR HOME AND SCHOOL 



173 



quarters of an inch apart and the heads are to be set a 
little below the surface of the wood. 



\-o 



-0 1 - - 




Fig. 155. — Whisk broom holder. 

Finishing : — 

6. After sanding the whisk broom holder it is to be 
stained with burnt Sienna stain, and then given one or 
two coats of hard oil as required. Give much attention 
to good finishing. A model that has been well made 
may often be spoiled by poor finishing. 



17 



EDUCATIONAL WOODWORKING 



/>'. Bench Work 

The foregoing exeroises may l>< v taken up In schools 
with shops ii* they have not been made by pupils. There 
is .M certain value in I hem whioh should not be overlooked. 
They require little material and are therefore economical, 



Shelf (Fig, 156) 

stock: 2 (|*x y«- ■ 24"), 2 (J* x 6*x6"), basswood, 
Supplies: No. I sandpaper, 1" L6 steel wire brads, 



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Fig 106, Shelf, 



lu the construction of the shelf proceed as follows: — 

1 . With plane reduce the stock to the desired measure- 
ments, as shown iii Fig, L56. 

2, Lay oil lines for curves as shown in drawing, 

,">. With bracket saw or scroll saw, saw to these 
lines. 



ll'OH IK 'Ml. \NI> HCUOOli 



17/5 



I if ourvos arc ragged, use wood rasp, then sand 

I > ; 1 1 > « - 1 Keep llic odgOS . < 1 1 1 : 1 1 < * . I >o QOt roilinl llir 

corners in sanding. 

5 Willi compasses sot al two Inches stop off points 
whore the nails are <<> l><' driven Sec that the nails <l<> 
not come too noar the ends <»i ( 1 1< * wood, causing it i<» 
splh 

c» N.-iil iIk' parts together*, The back is ini nailed 
to the brackets, Nun Uk> i<>|> i,, m.-m l«-< I i<> 1 1 ■<■ back and 
Ih aokots, 

7. s<-t Hie heads <>i Mm- nails little bolow \\\<- surface 

<>l I lie wooi I 

s. Stain and use hard 1 »il , as In the previous oxorcisosi 

Conl IIjmijm'i ( l'ij». 1 ;,7) 

Stock : 1 ( I" :;" id") bassw I or pine. 

Su|>| ilies 1 .ini Ipapei , screw hi >i >'■• 



(hh fi If * r t •'<'■ 



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i I - 1 - W * $i A :t 



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170 



EDUCATIONAL WOODWORKING 



In making the coat hanger proceed as follows: — 

1. Lay off the work according to the drawing. 

2. With bracket saw or spokeshave cut to these lines. 

3. With spokeshave round the top corners. 

4. Clean with sandpaper. 

5. Apply one or two coats of hard oil, varnish, or 
shellac. 

Kront Side Elevation V 

Plated tin braces 




Fig. ins.- Combination coat 
;iud trousers hanger. 



Combination Coat and Trousers Hanger (Fig. 158) 

Stock: 1 (£" x 4i" x 17£") maple, 2 (J" x 4|" x 15") 
maple. 

Supplies: sandpaper, No. 12 plated wire, tin for 
braces, brass nails to fasten braces, screw hook. 

In making the combination coat and pants hanger^ 
proceed as in last exercise, with the addition of the wire 



FOR HOME AND SCHOOL 177 

and tin work. One of the flaps is movable upon a wire 
hinge (see back elevation) and the other is stationary, 
being held in place by wire braces (see front elevation). 
The ends of the flaps are beveled so that when the pants 
are placed between them the braces (see front and bottom 
elevations) slide over the ends and press them closely 
together. 

Bread-cutting Board (Fig. 159) 

Stock: 3 (J" x iy x 14") cherry, 2 (J" x \\" x 14") 
bass wood. 

Supplies: sandpaper, glue. 



Fig. 159. —Bread-cutting board (cherry and basswood). 

In making the bread-cutting board, proceed as follows: 

1. Use three cherry strips and two basswood strips, 
as indicated in the drawing. 

2. Plane the edges of each strip a very little and fit 
together for gluing. 



178 EDUCATIONAL WOODWORKING 

3. Determine the direction of the grain of each piece 
on the face and make arrow indicating the direction of 
the grain. 

4. Arrange the pieces as they are to be glued together, 
so that the grain of the pieces runs in the same direction, 
and number these pieces 1, 2, etc. 

5. Glue pieces together. Scrape off surplus glue 
before it hardens. 

6. Allow pieces to remain in the clamps overnight 
while the glue hardens. 

7. Remove the clamps and dress the top and bottom 
surfaces to the desired thickness. 

8. Lay off ellipse by the trammel method as shown on 
page 290. 

9. Tilt the scroll saw table to the desired angle and 
saw out the ellipse form. 

10. Smooth the edges with wood rasp and sandpaper. 

11. Bore the nail hole near the top so that the bread- 
cutting board can be hung up, when not in use. 

12. Use no finish of any kind on this project. Why? 

Toothbrush Holder and Shelf (Fig. 160) 

Stock : 1 (f x 7J" x 14"), 1 (f x 3f x 14"), 2 (f" X 
2!" x 7"), 1 (f" x If" x 9f"), basswood. 
Supplies : sandpaper, 1" 16 steel wire brads. 

In making the toothbrush holder and shelf, proceed as 
follows : — 

1. Dress the stock to the desired measurements. 

2. Lay off the different parts according to the drawing. 

3. Cut curves with bracket saw or scroll saw. 



FOR HOME AND SCHOOL 



179 



4. In cutting the pockets for the brushes (see Section 
AB) bore a \" hole at the back to form the semicircle, 
then cut to the sides of this hole with back saw. 




Fig. 160. — Tooth- 
brush rack and 
shelf. 



-C 



£* 



-21- 



t4 &\ 



^_i____VU 



5. In fastening parts together, nail the brackets to the 
toothbrush holder. Nail the back to the brackets and 
to the holder. Nail the top to the brackets and to the 
back. 

6. Set the heads of the nails a little below the surface 
of the wood, using a nail set. 

7. Clean with sandpaper and finish as desired (see page 
155). 

Towel Rollers (Figs. 161 and 162) 

Directions 

Stock : 2 (J" x 1}", x 26"), long pieces for back; 1 (f" 
x 3f" x 12"), cross pieces for back; 1 (J" x 2f" x 12"), 
Brackets; 1 (J" x If" x 19"), Roller. White Pine. 



180 EDUCATIONAL WOODWORKING 




Fig. 161. — Towel roller. 

1. Get out the stock with cross-cut and rip saw. 

2. Plane the face and edge of each of the long pieces 
(a) square with each other, and reduce to dimensions, 
using the jack plane. 

3. Reduce cross pieces (b) and brackets (c) to dimen- 
sions in the same way. 

4. Square up the ends of cross pieces (b) to dimension, 
using back saw. 

5. Smooth the ends with the block plane. 

6. Lay out the ends of the long pieces (a) with the 
dividers. 

7. Lay out the joints on the long pieces (a) and cross 
pieces (6) with try-square, knife, and gauge; and remove 
the stock with back saw and chisel. 

8. Saw off the ends of long pieces (a) with back saw 
and form same with chisel and file. 

9. Smooth plane the front and back sides, and screw 
together. 

10. Lay out the position of the grooves and brackets 
and carve the grooves with the gouge. 



FOR HOME AND SCHOOL 



181 



11. Lay out the brackets with try-square and divid- 
ers and get same out on scroll saw, smooth with chisel 
and form with knife. 

12. Bore holes with auger bit and make groove for 
roller with back saw and chisel. 

13. Screw brackets in place. 

14. Reduce roller (d) to 1|" square as in (2). 



I 



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Fig. 162. — Towel roller. 



15. Square up the ends of roller to dimension, using 
back saw. 

16. Draw the diagonals on each end and from the 
centers thus obtained describe with the dividers 1J" 
circles within the squares. 

17. Plane off the corners with the hack plane, making 
the piece octagonal. Plane off the corners again, making 
it sixteen-sided. 

18. Finish to a cylinder with the smoothing plane. 

19. Smooth with file and sand paper. 

20. Bore holes with auger bit and glue in dowels. 

21. Fix in screw eyes- 



182 



EDUCATIONAL WOODWORKING 



Exercises 

Cross-cut and rip sawing, face planing, edge planing, 
squaring, gauging, sawing with back saw, planing with 
block plane, perpendicular chiseling, oblique chiseling, 
filing, smooth planing, perpendicular gouging, oblique 
gouging, scroll sawing, modeling with knife, boring with 
brace and auger bit, chamfer planing, modeling with 
smoothing plane, gluing, putting in screws, using gimlet 
bit and countersink, putting in screw eyes. 




Fig. 163. — Book rack. 



Book Rack (Figs. 163 and 164) 

Directions 
Stock: f" oak. 

1. Get out the several parts with cross-cut and rip 
saw, the two ends in one piece. 

2. Reduce each piece to dimensions, using the jaqk 
plane. 



FOR HOME AND SCHOOL 



183 



3. Measure the length of the end pieces and square up 
to dimensions, using the back saw. 

4. Smooth the ends with the block plane. 

5. Lay out the position of the grooves with rule, try- 
square, knife, bevel, and gauge. 

6. Cut out the grooves with back saw and chisel. 




Fig. 164. — Book rack. (Pupils are to make original designs for back 

and sides.) 

7. Square up the ends of the shelf to dimensions with 
back saw and block plane. 

8. Fit the shelf into the grooves with back saw and 
chisel. 

9. Make the grooving for the back with the plow or 
rabbet plane. 

10. Square up the back to dimensions and fit in posi- 
tion with block plane. 

11. Design the ends and back and shape with scroll 
saw, spokeshave, knife, and file. 



184 



EDUCATIONAL WOODWORKING 



12. Smooth all pieces with sandpaper and glue to- 
gether. 

13. Make miter joints on the top corners with miter 
box and tack in position. 



Exercises 

Cross-cut and rip sawing, face planing, edge planing, 
squaring, gauging, back sawing, block planing, perpen- 
dicular chiseling, rabbet planing, scroll sawing, smoothing 
with spokeshave, concave filing, smoothing with sand- 
paper, gluing, and sawing in miter-box. 




J 8 2 | rat 
^<_L i L -4. 




Fig. 165. — Whisk broom holder. 



FOR HOME AND SCHOOL 



185 




Fig. 166. —Blotter pad. 



180 



EDUCATIONAL WOODWORKING 



" - " ■ ■ i ■ ■' ' 



1 


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Fig. 167. — Decorations for top of blotter. 



FOR HOME AND SCHOOL 



187 




Fig. 168. — Key rack. (Use six %" screw hooks on which to hang keys.) 



INS 



EDUCATIONAL WOODWORKING 



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Fig. 109. — Picture frame. 




Fig. 170.— Counting board. 



FOR HOME AND SCHOOL 



189 



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Fig. 171. — Book rack. 




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Fig. 172. — Dovetail box. 



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EDUCATIONAL WOODWORKING 




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Fig. 173. — Tabourets. 




Fig. 174. — Camp stool. (The seat is to be made of leather, carpet, or 

canvas.) 



FOR HOME AND SCHOOL 



191 




Fig. 175. —Towel rack. (Pupils should design outlines of back and 

brackets.) 




I Vlfik 



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Fig. 176. — Inkstand. 



192 



EDUCATIONAL WOODWORKING 




Fig. 177. — Tabouret. 



FOR HOME AND SCHOOL 



193 



►f+— If— #i 





Fig. 178. — Plant marker and bed marker. 




Fig. 179. — Sleeve board. 



194 



EDUCATIONAL WOODWORKING 
20' 




Fig. 180. — Towel roller. 



Fig. 181. — Corner shelf. 




FOR HOME AND SCHOOL 



195 




Fig. 182. — Knife box. 



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Fig. 183. — Book rack. 



196 



EDUCATIONAL WOODWORKING 












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Fig. 184. — Bookcase. 



FOR HOME AND SCHOOL 



197 




Fig. 185. — Oak tabouret. 



08 



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FOK IIOMK AND SUlOOl, 



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EDUCATIONAL WOODWORKING 

























































































































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Fig. 190. — Chessboard. 



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FOR HOME AND SCHOOL 



201 




202 



EDUCATIONAL WOODWORKING 



42" 








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Fig. 192. — Bookcase. 



FOR HOME AND SCHOOL 



203 




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204 



KIH CATIONAL WOODWORKING 





FOR HOME AND SCHOOL 



205 








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206 



EDUCATIONAL WOODWORKING 




Fig. 196. — Jardiniere stand. 



1*— lf^-H| 




Fig. 197. —Floor broom holder. 



FOR HOME AND SCHOOL 



207 




Fig. 198. — Picture frames. 



208 



EDUCATIONAL WOODWORKING 



l*-4"-J 




Fig. 199. — Plate rack. 



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Fig. 200. — Magazine rack. 



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Fig. 201. — Umbrella rack. 



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Fig. 202. — Windmill vane. 
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Fig. 203. — Combination desk and bookcase. 



TOP VIEW. 



2 



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SIPE VIEW. 



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BOTTOM VIEW. 



Fig. 204. — Sawing exercise. 
211 



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212 



EDUCATIONAL WOODWORKING 




Fig. '205. — End dovetail joint. 



FOR HOME AND SCHOOL 



213 












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Fig. 206. —Half dovetail joint. 



214 



EDUCATIONAL WOODWORKING 




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Fig. 207. — Through mortise-and-tenon joint. 



PART VII 

Wood Turning 

The process of shaping wood by means of a machine 
called a lathe, Fig. 208, is called wood turning. The 



f Ceiling Line 




Fig. 208. — Wood-turning lathe (giving the name of each part). 

block of wood to be shaped by the process of wood turn- 
ing is put between two centers, called the spur or live 
center and the cup or dead center. The spur is set in 
motion and this in turn gives the block of wood a motion 
of revolution on the dead center. A turning tool resting 

215 



21() EDUCATIONAL WOODWORKING 

on the tee rest and hold by the workman cuts away the 
waste wood, giving the required shape to the block of 
wood. Wood to be turned may also be fastened in the 
lathe by the screw face plate, the dog face plate, and the bell 
chuck, depending of course upon the kind of work to be 
done. In turning a small rosette or other similar work 
the screw face plate is used, while the dog face plate is 
used for the same kind of work only when larger blocks 
are to be used. The grain of the wood when a face 4 plate 
is used is at right angles to the line of center. In turn- 
ing an overhanging piece of wood which is parallel with 
the line of center, such as in turning a napl\in ring, the 
bell chuck is used. 

The lathe is an ancient machine, being invented, it is 
claimed, by Diodorus Siculus, the grandson of Daxlalus. 
Pliny, however, ascribes it to Theodor of Samos (740 
b.c). Phidias and Pericles were experienced in its 
use. The lathe is also mentioned in the Bible as being 
used by the ancient Hebrews. The lathe has been 
adapted to many forms of work, and has passed through 
many stages in order to reach its present efficiency. 

Fig. 208 is a drawing of a wood-turning lathe, showing 
the countershaft attached to the ceiling. The drawing 
also gives the name of each part. The student during 
his course should learn the names of all of the parts 
and should be able to apply these names intelligently. 

Directions to Students for Lathe Work 

1. Learn all of the adjustments of your lathe and the 
use of each tool as soon as possible. Learn the name of 



FOR HOME AND SCHOOL 217 

each tool and the name of each part of the lathe as soon 
as possible, and learn to use those names intelligently. 

2. There is danger in operating running machinery. 
Be careful. Be thoughtful. Keep your sleeves away 
from the live center. In using sandpaper, put the right 
hand over the block. This will bring the left hand away 
from the live center. 

3. Keep your tools sharp. Learn from your instructor 
how to grind your tools on the grindstone and how to 
whet them on the oilstone and slip. In sharpening a 
tool always preserve the correct shape of the tool. 

4. Keep your lathe oiled. Do not use too much oil. 
Just a few drops on the bearings before beginning each 
exercise is quite enough. 

5. At the close of each exercise take your work out of 
the lathe, even though it is unfinished, dust off your tools 
and put them away in their proper places, then dust off 
your lathe very carefully. 

Exercise No. 1 

Stock : 1 (2" x 2" x 9") whitewood or pine. 

Directions : — 

1. Lay out your tools. 

2. Oil your lathe. 

3. Center the block of wood to be turned. If the block 
is approximately true, draw the diagonals on the square 
ends. This will locate the center on each end. 

4. Adjust the tail stock to accommodate the length of 
the wood and clamp it in place. Drive one end of the 
block into the spurs of the live center, using a mallet. 



218 



EDUCATIONAL WOODWORKING 



Fit the other end to the cup center and tighten, then 
loosen until the block turns easily in the lathe. 



,£N 





Fig. 209. — Turning exercises. — No. 1 and No. 2. 

5. Adjust the tee rest. This should be as close as 
possible to the work, and for nearly all of the exercises 
the top should be nearly on a level with the centers. As 
a rule the tee rest should be a little higher when using the 
skew chisel than when using a gouge or parting tool. 

6. Start the lathe 
by means of the 
shifting lever and 
rough down the 
block. This is done 
by means of the 
gouge, as shown in 
Fig. 210 (the cutting 
point being at A, when the gouge is moving in the 
direction of the arrow). Cut the block down to nearly 
If", getting a uniform diameter. 

7. The finishing cuts are made with the skew chisel 




Fig. 210. — Showing the position of gouge 
in roughing down the work. 



FOR HOME AND SCHOOL 



219 



held as shown in Fig. 211. Cut the block down until a 
perfectly cylindrical block If" in diameter is produced. 
Measure with calipers. 

8. With rule and 
pencil lay off 7", leav- 
ing about 1" waste at 
each end of the block. 

9. With parting 
tool cut to these lines 
so that when you get 
through the block is 
exactly 7" long. Cut nearly to the center of the block. 

10. Stop the lathe, remove the block, and with back 
saw saw off waste ends. 




Fig. 211. — Showing the position of chisel 
in making a finishing cut. 











, 












—if—* 






00! 




« — 1 r — > 


e— 2- 

r 


* 


1 
1 




.< 














1 

1 

1 


1" 


1 
1 
J 


»"■'""■""" 
( 

1 

1 




7 








1 
1 


*-!- 


s 




/ 


. 








: 


& 


t 7" 5 

8 ' 


*i* 


I 

l-l, 

1 


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H 


y 




X 









Fig. 212. — Turning exercises. — No. 3 and No. 4. 

Exercise No. 2 

Stock : 1 (2" x 2" x 9") white wood or pine. 

Directions : — 

Proceed as in Exercise No. 1 until the block is roughed 



220 



EDUCATIONAL WOODWORKING 



down to the approximate size, then finish with the skew 
chisel. Cut the ends down first, moving back towards 
the middle of the block at each stroke. Finish by cut- 
ting from the middle towards the ends. Learn to work 
rapidly at the lathe, yet work very carefully and accu- 
rately. Become efficient as soon as possible. 



Exercise No. 8 
Stock : 1 (2" x 2" x 9") whitewood or pine. 

Directions : — 

Proceed as in Exercise No. 1 until the block is reduced 
to If" in diameter. Beginning near the middle of the 




Fig. 213. — Showing position of chisel in finishing a shoulder, also cuts 
made with parting tool. 

block, lay off the 2" length. With parting tool cut 
down to the required depth on the outside edge of these 
lines, so that exactly 2" remains between these cuts. 
With gouge and then with skew chisel remove the waste 
wood out to the ends to If" diameter. In a similar way 
cut down the 1J" lengths at the ends to \" in diameter. 
Use no sandpaper in these practice exercises. The end 
wood of the shoulders is finished with the skew chisel 
held as shown in Fig. 213. 



FOR HOME AND SCHOOL 



221 



Exercise No. 4 

Stock : 1 (2" x 2" x 9") white wood or pine. 

Work this exercise according to your experiences 
already gained. 

Exercise No. 5 
Stock : 1 (2" x 2" x 9") whitewood or pine. 

In working this exercise, 
turn the block down to 
the required diameter. 
With dividers set accu- 
rately, lay off the required 
lines. In cutting the con- 
cave curves, hold the gouge 
as shown in Fig. 214. In 
making the straight cuts at an angle of 45 degrees, 
hold the skew chisel as shown in Fig. 215. 




Fig. 214. — Showing the position of 
gouges in cutting concave curves. 




Fig. 215. — Showing the position of chisel in cutting at an angle. 



222 



EDUCATIONAL WOODWORKING 



IVt 



N_lAi IA1 



VI 



^m^ 



\.v, L'lj l'I'j . a_j l a • u_ a".' ihfJ 




^> 



r-N 






1 




Fig. 210. — Turning exercises. — No. 5 and No. 0. 




10S; 



o /^ r^ o o /^ /^ 

^_> M M k> 



^ 












w 












W 






■9F- 



V_/ 



/TS /""N ^ 



(IT 






\y\ 



Fig. 217. — Turning exercises. — No. 7 and No. 8. 



FOR HOME AND SCHOOL 



223 




Fig. 218. — Turning exercises. — No. 9, No. 10, and No. 11. 



224 



EDUCATIONAL WOODWORKING 





Fig. 219. — Turning exercises. — No. 12 and No. 13. 





"HF*f*— zf^±f$^+-i+P 



H^ 



Fig. 220. —Turning exercises. —No. 14 and No. 15. 



FOR HOME AND SCHOOL 



225 



irrrrTT 



r 



moi Hn J«j5i rt^ fJS{^ 

H- — ^ 



<d I : ; ; .! ; ; i ■ £» 

1 r* it. i 4_ 5"_JL T-i i'A'« 13' i l'i_ sf_J l" 1 , tLti _, i a 1 

•%. 4 ifiS^a ?. t V Aa 4; s^isirar A$. 





* 1.2 '8 8. 8 * 8 4 A *4 8 ^8 8 'g A2. 

Fig. 221. — Turning exercises. — No. 16 and No. 17. 




^TVj< 



rvx/^-M 



D 



— ! • i i • i _ i i i ; i i • 

^ *^4^4\4^^1j6 ^4^^-1.8^163. 



12 





T 



1 - <J^ i .8^^4:ff4l4l4',ag^ Oa ^4 iff ! 4 



24 

Fig. 222. — Turning exercises. — No. 18 and No. 19. 




226 



EDUCATIONAL WOODWORKING 





Fig. 223. —Turning exercises. —No. 20 and No. 21. 




Fig. 224. — Showing face plate work in turning rosettes. 




Fig. 225. — Showing bell chuck work. 



FOR HOME AND SCHOOL 



227 




Fig. 226. — Turning exercise. —No. 22. 



228 



EDUCATIONAL WOODWORKING 




k- -5' 

Tt' 

|T~— .TT7 T > 2" < 

* ?i ' 

Fig. 227. — Turning exercise. — No. 23. 



FOR HOME AND SCHOOL 



229 









1 






ft 


r 




s 


( 




) 


^ 




\ 


. 







.IS 

-I 



r 

— I(M _| —IN 

He?' 



Jt- - Lt. 



Fig. 228. —Turning exercises. — No. 24, No. 25, and No. 26. 



230 



EDUCATIONAL WOODWORKING 




Fig. 229. — Turning exercise. — No. 27. 



FOR HOME AND SCHOOL 



231 




o 



0> 

M 
bn 



H 
I 

55 

6 

M 




Fig. 231. — Turning exer- 
cise. — No. 29. 



232 



EDUCATIONAL WOODWORKING 




>2~ * "« ~ '22 

Fig. 232. — Turning exercises. — No. 30 and No. 31. 




i« .' £*£*-$" — >• 3. v «aV ^'r->i3 '*iW»l< il"' >3"i',3 ri ;» *i".iV3'Ji -II" I?3£_ 




Fig. 233. — Turning exercises. — No. 32, No. 33, and No. 34. 



APPENDIX A 

Key to the More Important Woods of North 

America x 

[The numbers preceding names refer to the List of Woods follow- 
ing the Key.] 

Directions for Using Key 

It is rather difficult at first to use a key of any kind. 
One must have some practice before accuracy is acquired 
in the collection of data used in the key. In the use of 
the following key one should work at first with a few 
samples of wood accurately named and large enough to 
show pith and bark and wide enough to show cross 
section. Do not use polished woods, but clean fresh 
specimens. After working with a few woods that are 
known so that the use of the key is understood, take 
several specimens of wood that are unknown and deter- 
mine the kind of wood. For a close study of a speci- 
men it is well to moisten the wood and cut off a thin, 
small section with a sharp knife, and put the bit of wood 
between two pieces of thin glass for study under the 
microscope or by holding to the light. After a few trials 
the value of the key will be understood and it will create 
much interest in woods. 

1 The following key is taken from "Timber," Bulletin No. 10, 
U.S. Dept. of Agric., Division of Forestry. 

233 



234 



EDUCATIONAL WOODWORKING 



I. Non-porous Woods. — Pores not visible or con- 
spicuous on cross section, even with magnifier. Annual 
rings distinct by denser (dark colored) bands of summer 
wood (Fig. 234). 



A-----* B r C- — 




H 



O.G. 



ar-i . • 
.sp.w.-" 



>p.w 



■i?-i 



3. 234. — " Non-porous " woods. A, fir; 5, "hard " pine; C, soft 
ar, annual ring; o.e., outer edge of ring; i.e., inner edge of 
s.w., summer wood ; sp.w., spring wood ; rd, resin ducts. 



ods. A, fir; B, "hard " pine; C, soft pine; 
er edge of ring ; i.e., inner edge of ring ; 
spring wood ; rd, resin ducts. 



II. Ring-porous Woods. — Pores numerous, usually 
visible on cross section without magnifier. Annual 




Fig. 235. — "Ring-porous" woods. White oak and hickory, a. r., annual 
ring; sum., summer wood; sp.w., spring wood; v, vessels or pores: 
c.L, concentric lines; rt, darker tracts of hard fibers forming the firm 
part of oak wood ; pr, pith rays. 

rings distinct by a zone of large pores collected in the 
spring wood, alternating with the denser summer wood 
(Fig. 235). 



FOR HOME AND SCHOOL 



235 



III. Diffuse-porous Woods. — Pores numerous, usually 
not plainly visible on cross section without magnifier. 
Annual rings distinct by a fine line of denser summer- 
wood cells, often quite indistinct; pores scattered 
through annual ring, no zone of collected pores in spring 
wood (Fig. 236). 




Beech } .Sycamore ! Birch ! 



Fig. 236. — " Diffuse-porous " woods, ar, annual ring ; pr, pith rays which 
are " broad " at a, " fine " at b, " indistinct " at d. 



Note. — The above described three groups are exog- 
enous, i.e. they grow by adding annually wood on their 
circumference. A fourth group is formed by the endog- 
enous woods, like yuccas and palms, which do not grow 
by such additions. 



236 EDUCATIONAL WOODWORKING 

I. — Non-Porous Woods 

[Includes all coniferous woods.] 

A. Resin ducts wanting. 1 

1. No distinct heartwood. 

a. Color effect yellowish white; summer wood 
darker yellowish (under microscope pith 
ray without tracheids) (Nos. 9-13) Fir. 

6. Color effect reddish (roseate) (under micro- 
scope pith ray with tracheids) 

(Nos. 14 and 15) Hemlock. 

2. Heartwood present, color decidedly different in 

kind from sap wood. 

a. Heartwood light orange red; sapwood, pale 

lemon; wood, heavy and hard (No. 38) Yew. 

b. Heartwood purplish to brownish red; sap- 

wood yellowish white; wood soft to me- 
dium hard light, usually with aromatic 
odor (No. 6) Red Cedar. 

c. Heartwood maroon to terra cotta or deep 

brownish red ; sapwood light orange to dark 
umber, very soft and light, no odor; pith 
rays very distinct, specially pronounced 
on radial section (No. 7) Redwood. 

1 To discover the resin ducts a very smooth surface is necessary, 
since resin ducts are frequently seen only with difficulty, appear- 
ing on the cross section as fine whiter or darker spots normally 
scattered singly, rarely in groups, usually in the summer wood of 
the annual ring. They are often much more easily seen on radial, 
and still more so on tangential sections, appearing there as fine 
lines or dots of open structure of different color or as indentations 
or pin scratches in a longitudinal direction. 



FOR HOME AND SCHOOL 237 

3. Heart wood present , color only different in shade 
from sapwood, dingy yellowish brown. 

a. Odorless and tasteless 

(No. 8) Bald Cypress. 

b. Wood with mild resinous odor, but tasteless 

(Nos. 1-4) White Cedar. 

c. Wood with strong resinous odor and peppery 

taste when freshly cut 

(No. 5) Incense Cedar. 
B. Resin ducts present. 

1. No distinct heartwood; color white, resin ducts 

very small, not numerous (Nos. 33-36) Spruce. 

2. Distinct heartwood present. 

a. Resin ducts numerous, evenly scattered 

through the ring. 
a'. Transition from spring wood to summer 
wood gradual ; annual ring distinguished 
by a fine line of dense summer-wood 
cells ; color white to yellowish red ; wood 
soft and light 

(Nos. 18-21) Soft Pines. 1 
&'. Transition from spring wood to summer 
wood more or less abrupt; broad bands 
of dark-colored summer wood; color 
from light to deep orange; wood me- 
dium hard and heavy 

(Nos. 22-32) Hard Pines. 1 

b. Resin ducts not numerous nor evenly dis- 

tributed. 

1 Soft and hard pines are arbitrary distinctions and the two not 
distinguishable at the limit. 



238 EDUCATIONAL WOODWORKING 

a' . Color of heartwood orange-reddish, sap- 
wood yellowish (same as hard pine); 
resin ducts frequently combined in 
groups of 8 to 30, forming lines on the 
cross section (tracheids with spirals) 

(No. 37) Douglas Spruce. 

b f . Color of heartwood light russet brown; of 
sap wood yellowish brown; resin ducts 
very few, irregularly scattered (tracheids 
without spirals) 

(Nos. 16 and 17) Tamarack. 

Additional Notes for Distinctions in the Group 

Spruce is hardly distinguishable from fir, except by 
the existence of the resin ducts, and microscopically by 
the presence of tracheids in the medullary rays. Spruce 
may also be confounded with soft pine, except for the 
heartwood color of the latter and the larger, more fre- 
quent, and more readily visible resin ducts. 

In the lumber yard, hemlock is usually recognized by 
color and the silvery character of its surface. Western 
hemlocks partake of this last character to a less degree. 

Microscopically the white pine can be distinguished 
by having usually only one large pit, while spruce shows 
three to five very small pits in the parenchyma cells 
of the pith ray communicating with the tracheid. 

The distinction of the pines is possible only by micro- 
scopic examination. The following distinctive features 
may assist in recognizing, when in the log or lumber pile, 
those usually found in the market : — 



FOR HOME AND SCHOOL 239 

The light, straw color, combined with great lightness 
and softness, distinguishes the white pines (white pine 
and sugar pine) from the hard pines (all others in the 
market), which may also be recognized by the gradual 
change of spring wood into summer wood. This change 
in hard pines is abrupt, making the summer wood 
appear as a sharply defined and more or less broad 
band. 

The Norway pine, which may be confounded with the 
shortleaf pine, can be distinguished by being much 
lighter and softer. It may also, but more rarely, be 
confounded with heavier white pine, but for the sharper 
definition of the annual ring, weight, and hardness. 

The longleaf pine is strikingly heavy, hard, and resin- 
ous, and usually very regular and narrow ringed, showing 
little sapwood, and differing in this respect from the 
shortleaf pine and loblolly pine, which usually have 
wider rings and more sapwood, the latter excelling in 
that respect. 

The following convenient and useful classification of 
pines into four groups, proposed by Dr. H. Mayr, is 
based on the appearance of the pith ray as seen in a 
radial section of the spring wood of any ring : — 
Section I. Walls of the tracheids of the pith ray with 

dentate projections. 

a. One to two large, simple pits to each tracheid 

on the radial walls of the cells of the pith ray. 
— Group 1. Represented in this country 
only by P. resinosa. 

b. Three to six simple pits to each tracheid, on 

walls of the cells of the pith ray. — Group 2. 



240 KDUCATIONAL WOODWORKING 

P. taeda, palustris, etc., including most of 
our " hard" and "yellow" pines. 
Section II. Walls of tracheids of pith ray smooth, with- 
out dentate projections. 

a. One or two large pits to each tracheid on the 

radial walls of each cell of the pith ray. — 
Group 3. P. strdbus, lambertiana, and other 
true white pines. 

b. Three to six small pits on the radial walls of each 

cell of the pith ray. — Group 4. P. parry ana, 
and other nut pines, including also P. bal- 
fouriana. 

II. — - Ring-porous Woods 

[Some of Group D and cedar elm imperfectly ring-porous.] 

A. Pores in the summer wood minute, scattered singly 
or in groups, or in short broken lines, the course 
of which is never radial. 
1. Pith rays minute, scarcely distinct. 

a. Wood heavy and hard; pores in the summer 

wood not in clusters. 
a' . Color of radial section not yellow 

(Nos. 39-44) Ash. 

?/. Color of radial section light yellow; by 

which, together with its hardness and 

weight, this species is easily recognized 

(No. 103) Osage Orange. 

b. Wood light and soft ; pores in the summer 

wood in clusters of 10 to 30 

(No. 56) Catalpa. 



FOR HOME AND SCHOOL 241 

2. Pith rays very fine, yet distinct; pores in sum- 

mer wood usually single or in short lines; 
color of heartwood reddish brown ; of sap- 
wood yellowish white; peculiar odor on fresh 
section (No. Ill) Sassafras. 

3. Pith rays fine, but distinct. 

a. Very heavy and hard; heartwood yellowish 

brown (No. 77) Black Locust. 

b. Heavy; medium hard to hard. 

a' '. Pores in summer wood very minute, usu- 
ally in small clusters of 3 to 8; heart- 
wood light orange brown 

(No. 83) Red Mulberry. 

b f . Pores in summer wood small to minute, 

usually isolated ; heartwood cherry red 

(No. 61) Coffee Tree. 

4. Pith rays fine but very conspicuous, even without 

magnifier. Color of heartwood red; of sap- 
wood pale lemon (No. 78) Honey Locust. 

B. Pores of summer wood minute or small, in concentric 

wavy and sometimes branching lines, appearing as 
finely-feathered hatchings on tangential section. 

1. Pith rays fine, but very distinct; color greenish 

white. Heartwood absent or imperfectly de- 
veloped (No. 70) Hackberry. 

2. Pith rays indistinct; color of heartwood reddish 

brown; sap wood grayish to reddish white 

(Nos. 62-66) Elms. 

C. Pores of summer wood arranged in radial branching 

lines (when very crowded radial arrangement some- 
what obscured). 



242 EDUCATIONAL WOODWORKING 

1. Pith rays very minute, hardly visible 

(Nos. 58-60) Chestnut. 

2. Pith rays very broad and conspicuous 

(Nos. 84-102) Oak. 
D. Pores of summer wood mostly but little smaller than 
those of the spring wood, isolated and scattered; 
very heavy and hard woods. The pores of the 
spring wood sometimes form but an imperfect 
zone. (Some diffuse-porous woods of groups A 
and B may seem to belong here.) 

1. Fine concentric lines (not of pores) as distinct, 

or nearly so, as the very fine pith rays; outer 
summer wood with a tinge of red; heartwood 
light reddish brown (Nos. 71-75) Hickory. 

2. Fine concentric lines, much finer than the pith 

rays; no reddish tinge in summer wood; sap- 
wood white; heartwood blackish 

(No. 105) Persimmon. 

Additional Notes for Distinctions in the Group 

Sassafras and mulberry may be confounded but for the 
greater weight and hardness and the absence of odor in 
the mulberry; the radial section of mulberry also shows 
the pith rays conspicuously. 

Honey locust, coffee tree, and black locust are also very 
similar in appearance. The honey locust stands out by 
the conspicuousness of the pith rays, especially on radial 
sections, on account of their height, while the black 
locust is distinguished by the extremely great weight 
and hardness, together with its darker brown color. 



FOR HOME AND SCHOOL 



243 




Fig. 237. — Wood of coffee tree. 

The ashes, elms, hickories, and oaks may, on casual 
observation, appear to resemble one another on account 
of the pronounced zone of porous spring wood. The 
sharply defined large; pith rays of the oak exclude these 
at once; the wavy lines of pores in the summer wood, 
appearing as conspicuous finely-feathered hatchings on 
tangential section, distinguish the elms; while the ashes 
differ from the hickory by the very conspicuously defined 
zone of spring-wood pores, which in hickory appear more 
or less interrupted. The reddish hue of the hickory and 
the more or less brown hue of the ash may also aid in 
ready recognition. The smooth, radial surface of split 
hickory will readily separate it from the rest. 

The different species of ash may be identified as 
follows : — 

1. Pores in the summer wood more or less united 
into lines. 
a. The lines short and broken, occurring mostly 
near the limit of the ring 

(No. 39) White Ash. 



244 



EDUCATIONAL WOODWORKING 



b. The lines quite long and conspicuous in most 
parts of the summer wood 

(No. 43) Green Ash. 
2. Pores in the summer wood not united into lines, 
or rarely so. 

a. Heartwood reddish brown and very firm 

(No. 40) Red Ash. 

b. Heartwood grayish brown, and much more 

porous (No. 41) Black Ash. 




Fig. 238.-^4, black ash ; B, white ash ; C, green ash. 



In the oaks, two groups can be readily distinguished 
by the manner in which the pores are distributed in the 
summer wood. In the white oaks the pores are very 
fine and numerous and crowded in the outer part of the 



FOR HOME AND SCHOOL 



245 




Fig. 239. — Wood of red oak. 



o9,?.EQ.oo.Oo 0°oOq o°0o o,..%°p,, 9,0.0 v %% % 90. P( 




Fig. 240. — Wood of chestnut. 



246 



EDUCATIONAL WOODWORKING 



summer wood, while in the black or red oaks the pores 
are larger, few in number, and mostly isolated. The live 




Fig. 241.— Wood of hickory. 

oaks, as far as structure is concerned, belong to the black 

oaks, but arc Hindi less porous, and arc exceeding heavy 
and hard. 



III. Diffuse-porous Woods 

| A few indistinctly ring-porous woods of Group II, D, and cedar 
elm may semi to belong here.] 

A. Pores varying in size from large to minute; largest 
in spring wood, thereby giving sometimes the ap- 
pearance of a ring-porous arrangement. 

1. Heavy and hard; color of heart wood (especially 

on longitudinal section) chocolate brown 

(No. I L6) Black Walnut. 

2. Light and soft ; color of heart wood light reddish 

brown, (No. 55) Butternut. 



FOR HOME AND SCHOOL 247 

B. Pores all minute and indistinct; most numerous in 

spring wood, giving rise to a lighter colored zone 
or line (especially on longitudinal section), thereby 
appearing sometimes ring-porous; wood hard, 
heartwood vinous reddish; pith rays very fine, 
but very distinct. (See also the sometimes indis- 
tinct ring-porous cedar elm, and occasionally 
winged elm, which are readily distinguished by 
the concentric wavy lines of pores in the summer 
wood) (No. 57) Cherry. 

C. Pores minute or indistinct, neither conspicuously 

larger nor more numerous in the spring wood 
and evenly distributed. 
1. Broad pith rays present. 

a. All or most pith rays broad, numerous, and 

crowded, especially on tangential sections, 
medium heavy and hard, difficult to split 
(Nos. 112 and 113) Sycamore. 

b. Only part of the pith rays broad. 

a' '. Broad pith rays well defined, quite nu- 
merous; wood reddish white to red- 
dish (No. 47) Beech. 

b' '. Broad pith rays not sharply defined, 
made up of many small rays, not 
numerous. Stem furrowed, and there- 
fore the periphery of section, and with 
it the annual rings sinuous, bending in 
and out, and the large pith rays gen- 
erally limited to the furrows or concave 
portions. Wood white, not reddish 
(No. 52) Blue Beech. 



248 EDUCATIONAL WOODWORKING 

2. No broad pith rays present, 

(i. Pith rays small i<> very small, but quite 
distinct. 
n' . Wood hard. 

a". Color reddish while, with dark red- 
dish tinge in outer summer wood 
(Nos. 79 82) Maple. 
/>". Color white, without reddish binge 

(No. 76) Holly. 

//. Wood soft bo very soft. 

a". Pores crowded, occupying nearly all 

I he space between pith rays. 

</'". Color yellowish white, often with 

a greenish binge in heartwood 

(No. I L5) Tulip Poplar, 

(No. IKi) Cucumber Tree. 

//". Color of sapwood grayish, of 
heartwood Light bo dark red- 
dish brown 

(No. 69) Sweet Gum. 

b" . Pores no1 crowded, occupying not 

over one third bhe space between 

pith rays; heart wood brownish 

while bo very Light brown 

(Nos. 45 and 46) Basswood. 

/>. Pith rays scarcely distinct, ye1 if viewed with 
ordinary magnifier, plainly visible. 
a'. Pores indistinct lo bhe naked eye. 

e". Color uniform paleyellow; pithrays 
uoi conspicuous even on i he radial 

seel ion (Nos. 53 and 54) Buckeye. 



KOI I MOM I, AND SCHOOL 



249 



//'. Sapwood yellowish gray/ heart wood 
grayish brown; pith rays con- 
spicuous on the radial section 

(Nos. 07 68) Sour Gum. 
I/. Pores scarcely distinct, but mostly visible 
as grayish specks on the cross sec 
lion; sapwood whitish, heartwood red 
dish (Nos. 48 . r >i; Birch. 

I). Pith raye not visible or else indistinct, even if viewed 
wiili magnifier. 

I. Wood Very Soft, while, or in : Ii.-imV:: of hrown, 

usually wit li a silky luster 

(Nos. L05 I LO) Cottonwood (Poplar); 



an 




ar 



; jk : :fj 

/"■ 
l Beech \ Sycamore ' - Birch 

J'"- 'i ' Wood of beech, •ycatnore, and birch. 

( i '.i i ■. planatlon of lotto) ■ • i Ig ! 10 , 

Additional Notes J<>r Distinction* in if"- Group 

Cherry and birch are sometimes confounded, the high 
pith rays on the cherry on radial sections readily dis- 
tinguishes if; distind pores on birch and spring-wood 
zone in cherry as well as the darker vinou brown color 
of the In! ter will prove helpful. 



250 



I'lDlM'ATloNAL \\<MH>\\<>KklN<; 



'Two groups <>f birches can be readily distinguished, 
though specific distinction is not always possible. 

1. Pith rays fairly distinct, the pores rather few 

.Mini not more abundant in the spring wood; 
wood heavy, usually darker 

(No. 48) Cherry Birch 
;ind (No. 49) Yellow Birch. 

2. Pith rays barely distinct, pores more numerous 

and commonly forming a more porous spring- 
wood zone) wood of medium weight 

(No. M) Canoe or Paper Birch. 




Fig, 243. Wood «>r maple. 

The species of maple may be distinguished as follows: 

1. Most of the pith rays broader than the pores and 

very conspicuous (No. 7\)) Sugar Maple. 

2. Pith rays not or rarely broader than the port's, 

line hul conspicuous. 

a. Wood heavy and hard, usually o( darker 
reddish color and commonly spotted on 

cross section (No. 80) Red Maple. 



FOR IIOMK AM) SCHOOL 



21 



b. Wood of medium weight and hardness, usu- 
ally light colore. I (No. 82) Silver Maple. 
Red maple is not always safely distinguished from 
soft maple In box elder the pores are finer and more 
numerous than in soft maple. 



n 



1: 



f 



i I I I 



n 
m 1 






<y 






u. ... , ; J r u. 



:. 







Fia. '^n. — Wood of elm. a, red elm; &, white elm; c, winged elm. 

The srarious species of elm may be distinguished as 
follows: — 

1. Pores of spring wood form a broad band of 

several rows; easy splitting, dark brown 
heart (No. 64) Red Elm. 

2. Pores of spring wood usually in a single row, or 

nearly so. 
a. Pores of spring wood large, conspicuously 

(No. 62) White Elm. 



252 



EDUCATIONAL WOODWORKING 



b. Pores of spring wood small to minute. 

a! . Lines of pores in summer wood fine, not 
as wide as the intermediate spaces, 
giving rise to very compact grain 

(No. 63) Rock Elm. 



^c.1. 




> su.w. 



\ sp.w. 



Fig. 245. — Walnut, p.r., pith rays; c.l., concentric lines; v, vessels or 
pores; su.w., summer wood ; sp.io., spring wood. 

b'. Lines of pores broad, commonly as wide 
as the intermediate spaces 

(No. 66) Winged Elm. 
c. Pores in spring wood indistinct, and therefore 
hardly a ring-porous wood 

(No. 65) Cedar Elm. 




Fig. 246. — Wood of cherry. 



FOR HOME AND SCHOOL 253 



List of the More Important Woods of the 
United States 

[Arranged alphabetically.] 
A. — Coniferous Woods 

Woods of simple and uniform structure, generally 
light, soft but stiff; abundant in suitable dimensions and 
forming by far the greatest part of all the lumber used. 

CEDAR. — Light, soft, stiff, not strong, of fine texture; 
sap and heartwood distinct, the former lighter, the 
latter a dull, grayish brown, or red. The wood sea- 
sons rapidly, shrinks and checks but little, and is 
very durable. Used like soft pine, but owing to its 
great durability preferred for shingles, etc. Small 
sizes Used for posts, ties, etc. 1 Cedars usually occur 
scattered, but they form, in certain localities, forests 
of considerable extent. 

a. White Cedars. — Heartwood a light grayish 
brown. 

1 . White Cedar ( Thuya occidentalis) (arbor vitae) : 
Scattered along streams and lakes, frequently 
covering extensive swamps; rarely large enough for 
lumber, but commonly used for posts, ties, etc. 
Maine to Minnesota and northward. 

2. Canoe Cedar (Thuya gigantea) (red cedar of the 

1 Since almost all kinds of woods are used for fuel and charcoal, 
and in the construction of fences, sheds, barns, etc., the enumera- 
tion of these uses has been omitted in this list. 



254 EDUCATIONAL WOODWORKING 

West) : In Oregon and Washington a veiy large 
tree, covering extensive swamps; in the mountains 
much smaller, skirting the water courses; an im- 
portant lumber tree. Washington to northern Cali- 
fornia and eastward to Montana. 

3. White Cedar (Chamcecyparis thyoides): Medium- 
sized tree, wood very light and soft. Along the 
coast from Maine 4 to Mississippi. 

4. White Cedar (Chamcecyparis lawsoniana) (Port 
Orford cedar, Oregon cedar, Lawson's cypress, 
ginger pine) : A very large tree, extensively cut for 
lumber; heavier and stronger than the preceding. 
Along the coast line of Oregon. 

5. White Cedar (Libocedrus decurrens) (incense cedar) : 
A large tree, abundantly scattered among pine 
and fir; wood fine 4 grained. Cascades and Sierra 
Nevada of Oregon and California. 

I). Red Cedars. — Heartwood red. 
(). Red Cedar (Juniperus wirginiana) (Savin juniper) : 
Similar to white cedar, but of somewhat finer tex- 
ture. V<vi\ in cabinetwork, in cooperage, for veneers, 
and especially for lead pencils, for which purpose 
alone several million fed are cut each year. A small 
to medium sized tree scattered through the forests, 
or, in the West, sparsely covering extensive areas 
(cedar brakes). The red cedar is the most widely 
distributed conifer of the United States, occurring 
from the Atlantic to the Pacific and from Florida 
to Minnesota, but attains a suitable size for lumber 
only in the Southern, and more especially the Gulf 
States. 



FOR HOME AND SCHOOL 255 

7 . Redwood (Sequoia semper vir ens) : Wood in its qual- 
ity and uses like white cedar; the narrow sapwood 
whitish; the heart wood light red, soon turning 
to brownish red when exposed. A very large tree, 
limited to the coast ranges of California, and forming 
considerable forests, which are rapidly being con- 
verted into lumber. 

CYPRESS. 

8. Cypress (Taxodium distichum) (bald cypress; black, 
white, and red cypress) : Wood in appearance, 
quality, and uses similar to white cedar. " Black 
cypress" and " white cypress" are heavy and light 
forms of the same species. The cypress is a large 
deciduous tree, occupying much of the swamp and 
overflow land along the coast and rivers of the 
Southern States. 

FIR. — This name is frequently applied to wood and to 
trees which are not fir; most commonly to spruce, 
but also, especially in English markets, to pine. It 
resembles spruce, but it is easily distinguished from 
it, as well as from pine and larch, by the absence of 
resin ducts. Quality, uses, and habits similar to 
spruce. 

9. Balsam Fir {Abies balsamea) : A medium-sized 
tree scattered throughout the Northern pineries; 
cut, in lumber operations, whenever of sufficient 
size, and sold with pine or spruce. Minnesota to 
Maine and northward. 

10. White Fir (Abies grandis and Abies concolor) : 
Medium to very large sized tree, forming an impor- 
tant part of most of the Western mountain forests, 



256 EDUCATIONAL WOODWORKING 

and furnishing much of the lumber of the respective 
regions. The former occurs from Vancouver to 
central California and eastward to Montana; the 
latter from Oregon to Arizona and eastward to 
Colorado and New Mexico. 

11. White Fir (Abies amabilis): Good-sized tree, often 
forming extensive mountain forests. Cascade Moun- 
tains of Washington and Oregon. 

12. Red Fir (Abies nobilis) (not to be confounded with 
Douglas fir; see No. 37): Large to very large tree, 
forming with A. amabilis extensive forests on the 
slope of the mountains between 3000 and 4000 feet 
elevation. Cascade Mountains of Oregon. 

13. Red Fir (Abies magnified) : Very large tree, forming 
forests about the base of Mount Shasta. Sierra Ne- 
vada of California, from Mount Shasta southward. 

HEMLOCK. — Light to medium weight, soft, stiff but 
brittle, commonly crossgrained, rough and splintery; 
sapwood and heartwood not well defined ; the wood of 
a light, reddish-gray color, free from resin ducts, 
moderately durable, shrinks and warps considerably, 
wears rough, retains nails firmly. Used principally 
for dimension stuff and timbers. Hemlocks are me- 
dium to large sized trees, commonly scattered among 
broad-leaved trees and conifers, but often forming 
forests of almost pure growth. 

14. Hemlock (Tsuga canadensis): Medium-sized tree, 
furnishes almost all the hemlock of the Eastern 
market. Maine to Wisconsin; also following the 
Alleghanies southward to Georgia and Alabama. 

15. Hemlock (Tsuga mertensiana) : Large-sized tree, 



FOR HOME AND SCHOOL 257 

wood claimed to be heavier and harder than the 
Eastern form and of superior quality. Washington 
to California and eastward to Montana. 
LARCH or TAMARACK. - - Wood like the best of hard 
pine, both in appearance,, quality, and uses, and owing 
to its great durability somewhat preferred in ship- 
building, for telegraph poles, and railroad ties. In 
its structure it resembles spruce. The larches are 
deciduous trees, occasionally covering considerable 
areas, but usually scattered among other conifers. 

16. Tamarack (Larix americana) (Hackmatack) : Me- 
dium-sized tree, often covering swamps, in which 
case it is smaller and of poor quality. Maine to 
Minnesota, and southward to Pennsylvania. 

17. Tamarack (L. occidentalis) : Large-sized trees, scat- 
tered, locally abundant. Washington and Oregon 
to Montana. 

PINE. — Very variable, very light and soft in "soft" 
pine, such as white pine; of medium weight to heavy 
and quite hard in "hard" pine, of which longleaf or 
Georgia pine is the extreme form. Usually it is stiff, 
quite strong, of even texture, and more or less resinous. 
The sap wood is yellowish white; the heartwood, orange 
brown. Pine shrinks moderately, seasons rapidly 
and without much injury; it works easily; is never 
too hard to nail (unlike oak or hickory); it is mostly 
quite durable, and if well seasoned is not subject to 
the attacks of boring insects. The heavier the wood 
the darker, stronger, and harder it is, and the more 
it shrinks and checks. Pine is used more extensively 
than any other kind of wood. It is the principal wood 



258 EDUCATIONAL WOODWORKING 

in common carpentry, as well as in all heavy construc- 
tion, bridges, trestles, etc. It is also used in almost 
every other wood industry, for spars, masts, planks, 
and timbers in shipbuilding, in car and wagon con- 
struction, in cooperage, for crates and boxes, in 
furniture work, for toys and patterns, railway ties, 
water pipes, excelsior, etc. Pines are usually large 
trees with few branches, the straight, cylindrical, 
useful stem forming by far the greatest part of the 
tree; they occur gregariously, forming vast forests, 
a fact which greatly facilitates their exploitation. Of 
the many special terms applied to pine as lumber, 
denoting sometimes differences in quality, the follow- 
ing deserve attention: — 
"White pine," "pumpkin pine," "soft pine," in 
the Eastern markets refer to the wood of the 
white pine (Pinus strobus), and on the Pacific 
Coast to that of the sugar pine (P. lambertiana) . 
"Yellow pine" is applied in the trade to all the 
Southern lumber pines; in the Northeast it is 
also applied to the pitch pine (P. rigida); in the 
West it refers mostly to bull pine (P. ponderosa). 
"Yellow longleaf pine," "Georgia pine," chiefly 
used in advertisement, refers to longleaf pine 
(P. palustris). 
"Hard pine" is a common term in carpentry, and 

applies to everything except white pine. 
"Pitch pine" includes all Southern pines and 
also the true pitch pine (P. rigida), but is mostly 
applied, especially in foreign markets, to the wood 
of the longleaf pine (P. palustris). 



FOR HOME AND SCHOOL 259 

For the great variety of confusing local names applied 
to the Southern pines in their homes, part of which have 
been adopted in the markets of the Atlantic seaboard, 
see report of Chief Division of Forestry for 1891 , page 
212, etc., and also the list below: — 

a. Soft Pines. 

18. White Pine (Pinus strobus): Large to very large 
sized tree; for the last fifty years the most important 
timber tree of the Union, furnishing the best quality 
of soft pine. Minnesota, Wisconsin, Michigan, New 
England, along the Alleghanies to Georgia. 

19. Sugar Pine (Pinus lambertiana) : A very large 
tree, together with Abies concolor forming extensive 
forests; important lumber tree. Oregon and Cali- 
fornia. 

20. White Pine (Pinus monticola): A large tree, at 
home in Montana, Idaho, and the Pacific States; 
most common and locally used in northern Idaho. 

21. White Pine (Pinus flexilis) : A small tree, forming 
mountain forests of considerable extent and locally 
used; eastern Rocky Mountain slopes; Montana to 
New Mexico. 

b. Hard Pines. 

22. Longleaf Pine (Pinus palustris) (Georgia pine, yellow 
pine, long straw pine, etc.): Large tree; forms 
extensive forests and furnishes the hardest and 
strongest pine lumber in the market. Coast region 
from North Carolina to Texas. 

23. Bull Pine (Pinus ponder osa) (yellow pine): Me- 
dium to very large sized tree, forming extensive 
forests in Pacific and Rocky Mountain regions; 



260 EDUCATIONAL WOODWORKING 

furnishes most of the hard pine of the West; sap- 
i wood wide; wood very variable. 

24. Loblolly Pine (Pinus tceda) (slash pine, old field pine, 
rosemary pine, sap pine, short straw pine, etc.) : 
Large-sized tree, forms extensive forests; wider 
ringed, coarser, lighter, softer, with more sapwood, 
than the longleaf pine, but the two often confounded. 
This is the common lumber pine from Virginia to 
South Carolina, and is found extensively in Arkansas 
and Texas. Southern States; Virginia to Texas 
and .Arkansas. 

25. Norway Pine (Pinus resinosa): Large-sized tree, 
never forming forests, usually scattered or in small 
groves, together with white pine; largely sapwood 
and hence not durable. Minnesota to Michigan; 
also in New England to Pennsylvania. 

26. Shortleaf Pine (Pinus echinata) (slash pine, Carolina 
pine, yellow pine, old field pine, etc.) : Resembles 
loblolly pine; often approaches in its wood the 
Norway pine. The common lumber pine of Mis- 
souri and Arkansas. North Carolina to Texas and 
Missouri. 

27. Cuban Pine (Pinus cubensis) (slash pine, swamp 
pine, bastard pine, meadow pine) : Resembles long- 
leaf pine, but commonly has wider sapwood and 
coarser grain; does not enter the markets to any 
great extent. Along the coast from South Carolina 
to Louisiana. 

28. Bull Pine (Pinus jeffreyi) (black pine) : Large-sized 
tree, wood resembling bull pine (P. ponderosa); 
-Used locally in California, replacing P. ponderosa at 

high altitudes. 



FOR HOME AND SCHOOL 261 

The following are small to medium sized pines, not 
commonly offered as lumber in the market ; used locally 
for timber, ties, etc. : — 

29. Black Pine (Pinus murrayana) (lodge-pole pine, 
tamarack) : Rocky Mountains and Pacific regions. 

30. Pitch Pine (Pinus rigida) : Along the coast from 
New York to Georgia and along the mountains to 
Kentucky. < 

31. Jersey Pine (Pinus inops) (scrub pine) : As before. 

32. Gray Pine (Pinus banksiana) (scrub pine) : Maine, 
Vermont, and Michigan to Minnesota. 

REDWOOD. (See Cedar.) 

SPRUCE. — Resembles soft pine, is light, very soft, 
stiff, moderately strong, less resinous than pine; has 
no distinct heartwoocl, and is of whitish color. Used 
like soft pine, but also employed as resonance wood 
and preferred for paper pulp. Spruces, like pines, 
form extensive forests; they are more frugal, thrive 
on thinner soils, and bear more shade, but usually 
require a more humid climate. " Black " and ".white 
spruce," as applied by lumbermen, usually refer to 
narrow and wide ringed forms of the black spruce 
( Picea nigra) . 

33. Black Spruce (Picea nigra): Medium-sized tree, 
forms extensive forests in northeastern United 
States and in British America; occurs scattered or 
in groves, especially in low lands throughout the 
Northern pineries. Important lumber tree in east- 
ern United States. Maine to Minnesota, British 
America, and on the Alleghanies to North Carolina. 

34. White Spruce (Picea alba): Generally associated 



262 EDUCATIONAL WOODWORKING 

with the preceding; most abundant along streams 
and lakes, grows largest in Montana, and forms the 
most important tree of the subarctic forest of 
British America. Northern United States, from 
Maine to Minnesota, also from Montana to Pacific, 
British America. 

35. White Spruce (Picea engelmanni): Medium to 
large sized tree, forming extensive forests at eleva- 
tions from 5000 to 10,000 feet above sea level; 
resembles the preceding, but occupies a different 
station. A very important timber tree in the central 
and southern parts of the Rocky Mountains. Rocky 
Mountains from Mexico to Montana. 

36. Tide-land Spruce (Picea sitchensis): A large- 
sized tree, forming an extensive coast-belt forest. 
Along the seacoast from Alaska to Central Cali- 
fornia. 

BASTARD SPRUCE. — Spruce or fir in name, but re- 
sembling hard pine or larch in the appearance, quality, 
and uses of its wood. 

37. Douglas Spruce (Pseudotsaga douglasii) (yellow fir, 
red fir, Oregon pine) : One of the most important 
trees of the western United States; grows very 
large in the Pacific States, to fair size in all parts of 
the mountains, in Colorado up to about 10,000 feet 
above sea level; forms extensive forests, often of 
pure growth. Wood very variable, usually coarse- 
grained and heavy, with very pronounced summer 
wood, hard and strong ("red" fir), but often fine- 
grained and light (" yellow" fir). It replaces hard 
pine and is especially suited to heavy construction. 



FOR HOME AND SCHOOL 263 

From the plains to the Pacific Ocean; from Mexico 
to British America. 
TAMARACK. (See Larch.) 

YEW. — Wood heavy, hard, extremely stiff and strong, 
of fine texture with a pale yellow sapwood, and an 
orange red heart; seasons well and is quite durable. 
Yew is extensively used for archery, bows, turner's 
ware, etc. The yews form no forests, but occur 
scattered with other conifers. 
38. Yew (Taxus brevifolia) : A small to medium sized 
tree of the Pacific region. 



B. — Broad-leaved Woods (Hardwoods) 

Woods of complex and very variable structure and 
therefore differing widely in quality, behavior, and con- 
sequently in applicability to the arts. 

ASH. — Wood heavy, hard, strong, stiff, quite tough, 
not durable in contact with soil, straight grained, 
rough on the split surface and coarse in texture. The 
wood shrinks moderately, seasons with little injury, 
stands well, and takes a good polish. In carpentry 
ash is used for finishing lumber, stairways, panels, 
etc.; it is used in shipbuilding, in the construction of 
cars, wagons, carriages, etc., in the manufacture of 
farm implements, machinery, and especially of furni- 
ture of all kinds, and also for harness work; for bar- 
rels, baskets, oars, tool handles, hoops, clothespins, 
and toys. The trees of the several species of ash are 
rapid growers, of small to medium height with stout 



204 EDUCATIONAL WOODWORKING 

trunks; they form no forests, but occur scattered in 
almost all our broad-leaved forests. 

39. White Ash (Fraxinus americana) : Medium, some- 
times large sized tree. Basin of the Ohio, but 
found from Maine to Minnesota and Texas. 

40. Red Ash {Fraxinus pubescens) : Small-sized tree. 
North Atlantic States, but extends to the Missis- 
sippi. 

41. Black Ash (Fraxinus sambuci folia) (hoop ash, 
ground ash): medium-sized tree, very common. 
Maine to Minnesota, and southward to Virginia 
and Arkansas. 

42. Blue Ash (Fraxinus quadrangulata): Small to 
medium sized. Indiana and Illinois; occurs from 
Michigan to Minnesota and southward to Alabama. 

43. Green Ash (Fraxinus riridis): Small-sized tree. 
New York to the Rocky Mountains, and southward 
to Florida and Arizona. 

44. Oregon Ash ( Fraxinus oregana) : Medium-sized tree. 
Western Washington to California. 

ASPEN. (See Poplar.) 
BASSWOOD. 

45. Basswood (Tilia americana) (lime tree, American 
linden, lin, bee tree) : Wood light, soft, stiff but not 
strong, of fine texture, and white to light brown 
color. The wood shrinks considerably in drying, 
works and stands well; it is used in carpentry, in 
the manufacture of furniture and wooden ware, 
both turned and carved, in cooperage, for toys, also 
for paneling of car and carriage bodies. Medium 
to large sized tree, common in all Northern broad- 



FOR HOME AND SCHOOL 265 

leaved forests ; found throughout the eastern United 
States. 

46. White Basswood (Tilia heterophylla) : A small-sized 
tree most abundant in the Alleghany region. 

BEECH. 

47. Beech (Fagus ferruginea) : Wood heavy, hard, stiff, 
strong, or rather coarse texture, white to light 
brown, not durable in the ground, and subject to 
the inroads of boring insects; it shrinks and checks 
considerably in drying, works and stands well and 
takes a good polish. Used for furniture, in turnery, 
for handles, lasts, etc. Abroad it is very extensively 
employed by the carpenter, millwright, and wagon 
maker, in turnery as w T ell as wood carving. The 
beech is a medium-sized tree, common, sometimes 
forming forests ; most abundant in the Ohio and 
Mississippi basin, but found from Maine to Wiscon- 
sin and southward to Florida. 

BIRCH. — Wood heavy, hard, strong, of fine texture; 
sapwood whitish, heartwood in shades of brown 
with red and yellow; very handsome, with satiny 
luster, equaling cherry. The wood shrinks consider- 
ably in drying, works and stands well and takes a good 
polish, but is not durable if exposed. Birch is used 
for finishing lumber in building, in the manufacture 
of furniture, in wood turnery for spools, boxes, wooden 
shoes, etc., for shoe lasts and pegs, for wagon hubs, 
ox yokes, etc., also in wood carving. The birches are 
medium-sized trees, form extensive forests northward, 
and occur scattered in all broad-leaved forests of the 
eastern United States. 



266 EDUCATIONAL WOODWORKING 

•IS. Cherry Birch (Betula lenta) (black birch, sweet 
birch, mahogany birch): Medium-sized tree; very 
common. Maine to Michigan and to Tennessee, 

49, Yellow Birch (Betula luted) (gray birch): Medium- 
Sited tree; common. Maine to Minnesota and 
southward to Tennessee. 

50, Red Birch (Betula nigra) (river birch): Small to 
medium sited tree; very common: Lighter and less 
valuable than the preceding. New England to 
Texas and Missouri, 

51, Canoe Birch (Betula papi/ri/cra^ (white birch, paper 

birch): Generally a small tree; common, forming 
forests; wood of good quality but Lighter. All along 
the northern boundary o\ United States and north- 
ward, from the Atlantic to the Pacific, 
Bl ack walnut. (See Walnut) 

BLUE BEECH. 

52, Blue Beech (Carpinus carolinxana) (hornbeam, water 

beech, ironwood): Wood very heavy, hard, strong, 

very stiff, oi rather tine texture and white color; 
not durable in the ground; shrinks and checks 
greatly, but works and stands well. Used chiefly 
in turnery for tool handles, etc. Abroad, much 
used by mill and wheel Wrights, A small tree. 
Largest in the Southwest, but found in nearly all 
parts oi the eastern United States. 
BOIS PARC. (See Osage Orange.) 

BUCKEYE HORSE CHESTNUT. Wood ligjit, soft, 
not strong, often quite touch, of tine and uniform 
texture and creamy white color. It shrinks consid- 
erably, but works and stands well. Used for wooden- 



FOR HOME and school 207 

ware, artificial limbs, paper pulp, and Locally also for 
building lumber. Smallnsized I rees, scattered. 

53. Ohio Buckeye (Msculus glabra) (fetid buckeye): 
Alleghanies, Pennsylvania to Endian Territory. 

54. Sweet Buckeye (Msculus flava) : Alleghanies, Penn- 
sylvania to Texas. 

BUTTERNUT. 

55. Butternut (J-uylanx rhurca) (while walnut): Wood 

very similar to black walnut, hut light, quite soft, 
not strong and of Light brown color. Used chiefly 
for finishing lumber, cabinetwork, and cooperage. 
Medium-sized tree, largest and most, common in the 
Ohio basin; Maine to Minnesota and southward to 
Georgia and Alabama. 
CATALPA. 

56. Catalpa (('a/a/ pa speciosa)'. Wood light, soft,, not 

strong, brittle, durable, of coarse texture and 

brown color; used for ties and posts, but, well suited 

for a greal variety of uses. Medium-sized \r<>c; 
lower basin of the Ohio River, Locally common. 
Extensively planted, and therefore promising to 
become of some importance. 

CHERRY. 

57. Cherry ( /'runux wrolina) : Wood heavy, hard, 
Strong, of fine texture; SapWOOd yellowish white, 

heartwood reddish to brown. The wood shrinks 
considerably in drying, works and stands well, 

takes a good polish, and is much esteemed for its 
beauty. Cherry is chiefly used as a decorative finish- 
ing Lumber for buildings, cars, and boats, also for 

furniture and in turnery. It is becoming too cosily 



268 EDUCATIONAL WOODWORKING 

for many purposes for which it is naturally well 
suited. The lumber-furnishing cherry of this coun- 
try, the wild black cherry (Prunus serotina), is a 
small to medium sized tree, scattered through many 
of the broad-leaved woods of the western slope of 
the Alleghanies, but found from Michigan to Florida 
and west to Texas. Other species of this genus as 
well as the hawthorns (Crataegus) and wild apple 
(Pyrus) are not commonly offered in the market. 
Their wood is of the same character as cherry, often 
even finer, but in small dimensions. 
CHESTNUT. 

58. Chestnut (Castanea vulgaris var. americana) : Wood 
light, moderately soft, stiff, not strong, of coarse 
texture; the sapwood light, the heart wood darker 
brown. It shrinks and checks considerably in 
drying, works easily, stands well, and is very 
durable. Used in cabinetwork, cooperage, for rail- 
way ties, telegraph poles, and locally in heavy 
construction. Medium-sized tree, very common in 
the Alleghanies, occurs from Maine to Michigan and 
southward to Alabama. 

59. Chinquapin (Castanea pumila) : A small-sized tree, 
with wood slightly heavier but otherwise similar 
to the preceding; most common in Arkansas, but 
with nearly the same range as the chestnut. 

60. Chinquapin (Castanopsis chrysophylla) : A medium- 
sized tree of the western ranges of California and 
Oregon. 

COFFEE TREE. 

61. Coffee Tree (Gymnocladus canadensis) (coffee nut): 



FOR HOME AND SCHOOL 269 

Wood heavy, hard, strong, very stiff, of coarse 
texture, durable; the sapwood yellow, the heart- 
wood reddish brown; shrinks and checks consider- 
ably in drying; works and stands well and takes a 
good polish. It is used to a limited extent in cab- 
inetwork. A medium to large sized tree; not com- 
mon. Pennsylvania to Minnesota and Arkansas. 
COTTONWOOD. (See Poplar.) 
CUCUMBER TREE. (See Tulip.) 

ELM. — Wood heavy, hard, strong, very tough; moder- 
ately durable in contact with the soil; commonly 
crossgrained, difficult to split and shape, warps, and 
checks considerably in drying, but stands well if prop- 
erly handled. The broad sapwood whitish, heart, 
brown, both with shades of gray and red; on split 
surface rough ; texture coarse to fine ; capable of high 
polish. Elm is used in the construction of cars, 
wagons, etc., in boat and ship building, for agricultural 
implements and machinery; in rough cooperage, 
saddlery and harness work, but particularly in the 
manufacture of all kinds of furniture, where the 
beautiful figures, especially those of the tangential 
or bastard section, are just beginning to be duly ap- 
preciated. The elms are medium to large sized trees, 
of fairly rapid growth, with stout trunk, form no for- 
ests of pure growth, but are found scattered in all the 
broad-leaved woods of our country, sometimes forming 
a considerable portion of the arborescent growth. 
62. White Elm ( Ulmus americana) (American elm, water 
elm) : Medium to large sized tree, common. Maine 
to Minnesota, southward to Florida and Texas. 



270 EDUCATIONAL WOODWORKING 

63. Rock Elm ( Ulmus racemosa) (cork elm, hickory 
elm, white elm, cliff elm): Medium to large sized 
tree. Michigan, Ohio, from Vermont to Iowa, 
southward to Kentucky. 

64. Red Elm ( Ulmus fulva) (slippery elm, moose 
elm): Small-sized tree, found chiefly along water 
courses. New York to Minnesota, and southward 
to Florida and Texas. 

65. Cedar Elm ( Ulmus crassifolia) : Small-sized tree, 
quite common. Arkansas and Texas. 

66. Winged Elm (Ulmus alata) (wahoo) : Small-sized 
tree, locally quite common. Arkansas, Missouri, 
and eastern Virginia. 

GUM. — This general term refers to two kinds of wood 
usually distinguished as sweet or red gum, and sour, 
black, or tupelo gum, the former being a relative of 
the witch-hazel, the latter belonging to the dogwood 
family. 

67. Tupelo (Nyssa sylvatica) (sour gum, black gum): 
Maine to Michigan, and southward to Florida and 
Texas. Wood heavy, hard, strong, tough, of fine 
texture frequently crossgrained, of yellowish or 
grayish white color, hard to split and work, trouble- 
some in seasoning, warps and checks considerably, 
and is not durable if exposed; used for wagon 
hubs, wooden ware, handles, wooden shoes, etc. 
Medium to large sized trees, with straight, clear 
trunks; locally quite abundant, but never forming 
forests of pure growth. 

68. Tupelo Gum (Nyssa uniflora) (cotton gum): 
Lower Mississippi basin, northward to Illinois and 



FOR HOME AND SCHOOL 271 

eastward to Virginia, otherwise like preceding 
species. 

69. Sweet Gum (Liquidambar styraciflua) (red gum, 
liquidambar, bilsted) : Wood rather heavy, rather 
soft, quite stiff and strong, tough, commonly cross- 
grained, of fine texture; the broad sapwood whitish, 
the heartwood reddish brown; the wood shrinks 
and warps considerably, but does not check badly, 
stands well when fully seasoned, and takes good 
polish. Sweet gum is used in carpentry, in the 
manufacture of furniture, for cut veneer, for wooden 
plates, plaques, baskets, etc., also for wagon hubs, 
hat blocks, etc. A large-sized tree, very abundant, 
often the principal tree in the swampy parts of the 
bottoms of the lower Mississippi Valley; occurs 
from New York to Texas and from Indiana to 
Florida. 

HACKBERRY. 

70. Hackberry (Celtis occidentalis) (sugarberry) : The 
handsome wood heavy, hard, strong, quite tough, 
of moderately fine texture, and greenish or yellow- 
ish white color; shrinks moderately, works well, 
and takes a good polish. So far but little used 
in the manufacture of furniture. Medium to large 
sized tree, locally quite common, largest in the 
lower Mississippi Valley; occurs in nearly all parts 
of the eastern United States. 

HICKORY. — Wood very heavy, hard, and strong, 
proverbially tough, of rather coarse texture, smooth 
and of straight grain. The broad sapwood white, 
the heart reddish nut-brown. It dries slowly, shrinks 



272 EDUCATIONAL WOODWORKING 

and checks considerably; is not durable in the ground, 
or if exposed, and, especially the sapwood, is always 
subject to the inroads of boring insects. Hickory 
excels as carriage and wagon stock, but is also exten- 
sively used in the manufacture of implements and 
machinery, for tool handles, timber pins, for harness 
work, and cooperage. The hickories are tall trees with 
slender stems, never form forests, occasionally small 
groves, but usually occur scattered among other 
broad-leaved trees in suitable localities. The follow- 
ing species all contribute more or less to the hickory 
of the markets : — 

71. Shagbark Hickory (Hicoria ovata) (shellbark hick- 
ory) : A medium to large sized tree, quite com- 
mon ; the favorite arqpng hickories ; best developed 
in the Ohio and Mississippi basins; from Lake 
Ontario to Texas, Minnesota to Florida. 

72. Mocker Nut Hickory (Hicoria alba) (black hickory, 
bull and black nut, big bud, and white-heart 
hickory): A medium to large sized tree, with the 
same range as the foregoing; common, especially 
in the South. 

73. Pignut Hickory (Hicoria glabra) (brown hickory, 
black hickory, switch-bud hickory): Medium to 
large sized tree, abundant; all eastern United 
States. 

74. Bitternut Hickory (Hicoria minima) (swamp hick- 
ory) : A medium-sized tree, favoring wet localities, 
with the same range as the preceding. 

75. Pecan ( Hicoria pecan) (Illinois nut) : A large 
tree, very common in the fertile bottoms of the 



FOR HOME AND SCHOOL 273 

Western streams. Indiana to Nebraska and south- 
ward to Louisiana and Texas. 
HOLLY. 

76. Holly {Ilex opaca) : Wood of medium weight, hard, 
strong, tough, of fine texture and white color; 
works and stands well, used for cabinetwork and 
turnery. A small tree, most abundant in the 
lower Mississippi Valley and Gulf States, but occur- 
ring eastward to Massachusetts and north to Indiana. 

HORSE-CHESTNUT. (See Buckeye.) 

IRONWOOD. (See Blue Beech.) 

LOCUST. — This name applies to both of the following: 

77. Black Locust (Robinia pseudacacia) (black locust, 
yellow locust) : Wood very heavy, hard, strong, and 
tough, of coarse texture, very durable in contact 
with the soil, shrinks considerably and suffers in 
seasoning; the very narrow sap wood yellowish, 
the heart wood brown, with shades of red and green. 
Used for wagon hubs, treenails or pins, but especially 
for ties, posts, etc. Abroad it is much used for 
furniture and farm implements and also in turnery. 
Small to medium sized tree, at home in the Allegha- 
nies, extensively planted, especially in the West. 

78. Honey Locust (Gleditschia triacanthos) (black lo- 
cust, sweet locust, three-thorned acacia) : Wood 
heavy, hard, strong, tough, of coarse texture, 
susceptible of a good polish, the narrow sapwood 
yellow, the heart wood brownish red. So far but 
little appreciated except for fencing and fuel; 
used to some extent for wagon hubs and in rough 
construction. A medium-sized tree, found from 



274 EDUCATIONAL WOODWORKING 

Pennsylvania to Nebraska and southward to Florida 

and Texas; locally quite abundant. 

MAGNOLIA. (See Tulip Wood.) 

MAPLE. — Wood heavy, hard, strong, stiff, and tough, 

fine texture, frequently wavy-grained, this giving rise 

to "curly" and "blister" figures; not durable in the 

ground or otherwise exposed. Maple is creamy 

white, with shades of light brown in the heart; shrinks 
moderately, seasons, works, and stands well, wears 
smoothly, and takes a line polish." The wood is used 
lor ceiling, flooring, paneling, stairway, and other 
finishing lumber in house, ship, and ear construction ; 

it is used for the keels of boats and ships, in I he manu- 
facture of implements and machinery, but especially 
for furniture, where entire chamber sets of maple rival 
(hose of oak. Maple is also used for shoe lasts and 
other form blocks, for shoe pegs, for piano actions, 
for school apparatus, for wood type in show-bill print- 
ing, fool handles, in wood carving, turnery, and scroll 
work. The maples are medium-sized trees, of fairly 

rapid growth; sometimes form forests and frequently 

const it ul e a, large proportion of the arborescent growth. 

79. Sugar Maple (Acer saccharum) (hard maple, rock 

maple): Medium to large Sized tree, very common, 

forms considerable forests. Maine to Minnesota, 
abundant, with birch, in parts of the pineries; 
southward to northern Florida; most abundant in 
the region of the Great Lakes, 
SO. Red Maple (Acer rubrum) (swam]) or water maple): 
Medium-sized tree. Like the preceding, but scat- 
tered along watercourses and other moist localities. 



FOR HOME AND SCHOOL 275 

81. Silver Maple (Acer saccharinum) (soft maple, sil- 
ver maple;: Medium sized, common; wood lighter, 
softer, inferior to hard maple, and usually offered in 
small quantities and held separate in the market. 
Valley of the Ohio, but occurs from Maine to Dakota 
and southward to Florida. 

82. Broad-leafed Maple (Acer macrophyllum) : Medium- 
sized tree, forms considerable forests, and like the 
preceding has a lighter, softer, and less valuable 
wood. Pacific Coast. 

MULBERRY. 

83. Red Mulberry (Morus rubra) : Wood moderately 
heavy, hard, strong, rather tough, of coarse texture, 
durable; sapwood whitish, heart yellow to orange 
brown; shrinks and checks considerably in drying; 
works and stands well. Used in cooperage and 
locally in shipbuilding and in the manufacture of 
farm implements. A small-sized tree, common in 
the Ohio and Mississippi valleys, but widely dis- 
tributed in the eastern United States. 

OAK. — Wood very variable, usually very heavy and 
hard, very strong and tough, porous, and of coarse 
texture; the sapwood whitish, the heart "oak" brown 
to reddish brown. It shrinks and checks badly, giv- 
ing trouble in seasoning, but stands well, is durable, 
and little subject to attacks of insects. Oak is used 
for many purposes: in shipbuilding, for heavy con- 
struction, in common carpentry, in furniture, car, 
and wagon work, cooperage, turnery, and even in 
wood carving; also in the manufacture of all kinds of 
farm implements, wooden mill machinery, for piles 



276 EDUCATIONAL WOODWORKING 

and wharves, railway ties, etc. The oaks are medium 
to large sized trees, forming the predominant part of 
a large portion of our broad-leaved forests, so that 
these are generally "oak forests" though they always 
contain a considerable proportion of other kinds of 
trees. Three well-marked kinds, white, red, and live 
oak, are distinguished and kept separate in the market. 
Of the two principal kinds white oak is the stronger, 
tougher, less porous, and more durable. Red oak 
is usually of coarser texture, more porous, often brit- 
tle, less durable, and even more troublesome in sea- 
soning than white oak. In carpentry and furniture 
work red oak brings about the same price at present 
as white oak. The red oaks everywhere accom- 
pany the white oaks, and, like the latter, are usually 
represented by several species in any given locality. 
Live oak, once largely employed in shipbuilding, 
possesses all the good qualities (except that of size) 
of white oak, even to a greater degree. It is one of the 
heaviest, hardest, and most durable building timbers 
of this country; in structure it resembles the red oaks, 
but is much less porous. 

84. White Oak ( Quercus alba) : Medium to large sized 
tree, common in the Eastern States, Ohio and Mis- 
sissippi valleys; occurs throughout eastern United 
States. 

85. Bur Oak (Quercus macrocarpa) (mossy-cup oak, 
over-cup oak) : Large-sized tree, locally abundant, 
common. Bottoms w T est of Mississippi; range far- 
ther west than preceding. 

86. Swamp White Oak ( Quercus bicolor) : Large-sized 



FOR HOME AND SCHOOL 277 

tree, common. Most abundant in the Lake States, 
but with range as in white oak. 

87. Yellow Oak (Quercus prinoides (chestnut oak, 
chinquapin oak) : Medium-sized tree. Southern 
Alleghanies, eastward to Massachusetts. 

88. Basket Oak ( Quercus michauxii) (cow oak) : Large- 
sized tree, locally abundant; lower Mississippi and 
eastward to Delaware. 

89. Over-cup Oak {Quercus lyrata) (swamp white oak, 
swamp post oak) : Medium to large sized tree, 
rather restricted; ranges as in the preceding. 

90. Post Oak {Quercus obtusiloba) (iron oak): Medium 
to large sized tree. Arkansas to Texas, eastward 
to New England and northward to Michigan. 

91. White Oak {Quercus durandii): Medium to small 
sized tree. Texas, eastward to Alabama. 

92. White Oak ( Quercus garryana) : Medium to large 
sized tree. Washington to California. 

93. White Oak ( Quercus lobata) : Medium to large sized 
tree; largest oak on the Pacific Coast; California. 

94. Red Oak ( Quercus rubra) (black oak) : Medium to 
large sized tree; common in all parts of its range. 
Maine to Minnesota, and southward to the Gulf. 

95. Black Oak ( Quercus tinctoria) (yellow oak) : Me- 
dium to large sized tree; very common in the 
Southern States, but occurring north as far as 
Minnesota, and eastward to Maine. 

96. Spanish Oak {Quercus falcata) (red oak): Medium- 
sized tree, common in the South Atlantic and Gulf 
region, but found from Texas to New York, and 
north to Missouri and Kentucky. 



278 EDUCATIONAL WOODWORKING 

97. Scarlet Oak ( Quercus coccinea) : Medium to large 
sized tree; best developed in the lower basin of the 
Ohio, but found from Maine to Missouri, and from 
Minnesota to Florida. 

98. Pin Oak (Quercus palustris) (swamp Spanish oak, 
water oak) : Medium to large sized tree, common 
along borders of streams and swamps. Arkansas 
to Wisconsin, and eastward to the Alleghanies. 

99. Willow Oak (Quercus phellos) (peach oak): Small 
to medium sized tree. New York to Texas, and 
northward to Kentucky. 

100. Water Oak (Quercus aquatica) (duck oak, pos- 
sum oak, punk oak) : Medium to large sized tree, 
of extremely rapid growth. Eastern Gulf States, 
eastward to Delaware, and northward to Missouri 
and Kentucky. 

101. Live Oak (Quercus vir ens): Small-sized tree, scat- 
tered along the coast from Virginia to Texas. 

102. Live Oak (Quercus chrysolepis) (maul oak, 
Valparaiso oak): Medium-sized tree; California. 

OSAGE ORANGE. 

103. Osage Orange (Madura aurantiaca) (Bois d'Arc) : 
Wood very heavy, exceedingly hard, strong, not 
tough, of moderately coarse texture, and very dura- 
ble; sapwood yellow, heart brown on the end, yellow 
on longitudinal faces, soon turning grayish brown 
if exposed; it shrinks considerably in drying, but 
once dry it stands unusually well. Formerly much 
used for wheel stock in the dry regions of Texas; 
otherwise employed for posts, railway ties, etc. 
Seems too little appreciated; it is well suited for 



FOR HOME AND SCHOOL 279 

turned ware and especially for wood carving. A 
small-sized tree, of fairly rapid growth, scattered 
through the rich bottoms of Arkansas and Texas. 
PERSIMMON. 

104. Persimmon (Diospyros virginiana) : Wood very 
heavy and hard, strong and tough; resembles hick- 
ory, but is of finer texture; the broad sapwood cream 
color, the heart black; used in turnery for shuttles, 
plane stocks, shoe lasts, etc. Small to medium 
sized tree, common and best developed in the lower 
Ohio Valley, but occurs from New York to Texas 
and Missouri. 

POPLAR and COTTONWOOD (see also Tulip Wood).— 
Wood light, very soft, not strong, of fine texture, and 
whitish, grayish, to yellowish color, usually with a 
satiny luster. The wood shrinks moderately (some 
crossgrained forms warp excessively) but checks little; 
is easily worked but is not durable. Used as building 
and furniture lumber, in cooperage for sugar and flour 
barrels, for crates and boxes (especially cracker boxes), 
for wooden ware and paper pulp. 

105. Cottonwood (Populus monilijera) : Large-sized tree; 
forms considerable forests along many of the West- 
ern streams, and furnishes most of the cottonwood 
of the market. Mississippi Valley and west; New 
England to the Rocky Mountains. 

106. Balsam (Populus balsamifera) (balm of Gilead) : 
Medium to large sized tree; common all along the 
northern boundary of the United States. 

107. Black Cottonwood (Populus trichocarpa) : The 
largest deciduous tree of Washington; very com- 



280 EDUCATIONAL WOODWORKING 

11 ion. Northern Rocky Mountains and Pacific 
region. 

108. Cottonwood ( Populus fremontii var. wislizeni) : 
Medium to large sized tree, common. Texas to 
California. 

109. Poplar (Populus grandidentata) : Medium-sized 
tree, chiefly used for pulp. Maine to Minnesota 
and southward along the Alleghanies. 

110. Aspen (Populus tremuloides) : Small to medium 
sized tree, often forming extensive forests and 
covering burned areas. Maine to Washington and 
northward, south in the Western mountains to 
California and New Mexico. 

RED GUM. (See Gum.) 
SASSAFRAS. 

111. Sassafras (Sassafras sassafras): Wood light, soft, 
not strong, brittle, of coarse texture, durable; sap- 
wood yellow, heart orange brown. Used in coop- 
erage, for skiffs, fencing, etc. Medium-sized tree, 
largest in the lower Mississippi Valley, from New 
England to Texas and from Michigan to Florida. 

SOUR GUM. (See Gum.) 
SWEET GUM. (See Gum.) 
SYCAMORE. 

112. Sycamore (Platanus occidentalis) (button wood, 
buttonball tree, water beech) : Wood moderately 
heavy, quite hard, stiff, strong, tough, usually cross- 
grained, of coarse texture, and white to light brown 
color; the wood is hard to split and work, shrinks 
moderately, warps and checks considerably, but 
stands well. It is used extensively for drawers, 



FOR HOME AND SCHOOL 281 

backs, bottoms, etc., in cabinetwork, for tobacco 
boxes, in cooperage, and also for finishing lumber, 
where it has too long been underrated. A large 
tree, of rapid growth, common and largest in the 
Ohio and Mississippi valleys, at home in nearly all 
parts of the eastern United States. The California 
species — 

113. Platanus racemosa resembles in its wood the 
Eastern form. 

TULIP WOOD. 

114. Tulip Tree (Liriodendron tulipifera) (yellow pop- 
lar, white wood) : Wood quite variable in weight, 
usually light, soft, stiff but not strong, of fine texture, 
and yellowish color; the wood shrinks considerably, 
but seasons without much injury; works and stands 
remarkably well. Used for siding, for paneling and 
finishing lumber in house, car, and ship building, 
for sideboards, and panels of wagons and carriages ; 
also in the manufacture of furniture, implements and 
machinery, for pump logs, and almost every kind 
of common wooden ware, boxes, shelving, drawers, 
etc. An ideal wood for the carver and toy man. 
A large tree, does not form forests, but is quite 
common, especially in the Ohio Basin; occurs from 
New England to Missouri and southward to Florida. 

115. Cucumber Tree (Magnolia acuminata): A me- 
dium-sized tree, most common in the southern 
Alleghanies, but distributed from New York to 
Arkansas, southward to Alabama and northward 
to Illinois. Resembling, and probably confounded 
with, tulip wood in the markets. 



282 EDUCATIONAL WOODWORKING 

TUPELO. (See Gum.) 

WALNUT. 

116. Black Walnut (Juglans nigra): Wood heavy, hard, 
strong, of coarse texture ; the narrow sap wood whit- 
ish, the heartwood chocolate brown. The wood 
shrinks moderately in drying, works and stands well, 
takes a good polish, is quite handsome, and has been 
for a long time the favorite cabinet wood in this 
country. Walnut, formerly used even for fencing, 
has become too costly for ordinary uses, and is to- 
day employed largely as a veneer, for inside finish 
and cabinetwork; also in turnery, for gunstocks, 
etc. Black walnut is a large tree, with stout trunk, 
of rapid growth, and was formerly quite abundant 
throughout the Alleghany region, occurring from 
New England to Texas, and from Michigan to 
Florida. 

WHITE WALNUT. (See Butternut.) 

WHITE WOOD. (See Tulip, and also Basswood.) 

YELLOW POPLAR. (See Tulip.) 



APPENDIX B 

Problems in Construction and Geometric 

Helps 

The order of the letters and figures in the following 
indicates the order of construction and of reasoning in 
discussing the figures. 



283 



284 



EDUCATIONAL WOODWORKING 



Horizontal (Level) 
•A 



Vertical 
(Upright) 



Perpendicular 
(At ncjht anqlts) 
F/ 




Oblique 

(Slanting) 




Parallel 

ime direct 
Equidistant. 



/Same direction.) 
V Equidistant. / 




Intersecting 
(Cutting through. Meeting) 



Convergent 

( Orawinq together) 

^Divergent 

(Spreading apart) 



Fig. 247. — Direction of lines. 



* — f 



\ 



tDraw a line parallel 
to another line. 



/ i \ 



\ 
\ 



3. Bisect aline. 

( Divide into two equal part a) 



><r Fir»t 
/ \ method 

-D / \ / 

A— f <M) B fc-*- 



/\ Second 

method 

\ 

-a) — f 



\ J Si Draw a line perpendicular 

v I , to another line. 



B 



' ' /" 



~T / / 

/ / 



-4^ 



4. Divide a line into any number 
of equal parts. 



Fig. 248. — Line construction. 



FOR HOME AND SCHOOL 



285 



Vertex 



Acute 

(Sharp) 



Obtuse 

(Dull) 



Right 

/Ninety deqrees,-90* \ 

Sides perpendicular] 

\Square / 




Dimension of angles 
(Anqles a and b are adjacent) 




Anqles most commonly used. 



Fig. 249. — Angles. 




/ 



A 
C 



1. Bisect an angie 
C 



>3 



\ 



First 
\ method' 



\ 



A 



\ Second 
\\ method 



d. Construct a right angle at end of a line. 
( Also see'Draw a line perpendicular") 



^..Trisect a riqht angle. 
(Three equal parts) 




4.Construct angles cf 
fcO! 30' and 90 c 



Fig. 250. — Divisions and constructions of angles. 



286 



EDUCATIONAL AVOODWORKING 




1. Riqht 
(One right angle) 



Acute Obtuse 

3. Isosceles 
(equal legs) 



JV 




\c 


¥/ 


« 


Vo 


gy 


3 


VS 






Vv' 


«5y 

N// 


< 


V 




Base 


(side) \ 


2. 


Equi 


dteral 



(Equal sides) 




Acute Obtuse 

4. Scalene 
(Unequal legs and angles) 



Fig. 251. — Triangles. 




o r; *a 3 -« ^ ** -s ♦ ... ,„„i,> 3. The squares on the sides of a riqht 

Z Flrld area Of a tnanole. triangle equal the square on 

its hypotenuse. 

Fig. 252. — Construction and area of triangles. 



FOR HOME AND SCHOOL 



287 



Side.(Upper base.Top.) 




D 1. Parallelogram c 

(Opposite sides equal. Opposite angles equal.) 




^.Square 

(Four equal sides. Four riqht anq)es) 



a.Rectangle 4.Trapezium 

\0pp sides equal. Riqktanqles) (No two sides parallel ) 



, 5. Trapezoid 

(Only two sides parallel) 



Fig. 253. — Quadrilaterals. 




1. Construct a parallelogram. 
Length of sides and an angle given. 




E 




Z. Construct a square. 
Length of side given. 



T C F D 

3. Tind area of a parallelogram. 




Fig. 254. — Construction and area of quadrilaterals. 



288 



EDUCATIONAL WOODWORKING 



xf^ erQ ^s 


Seqment^^^ 


Quadrant\ 


1 Diameter 


\ fsector^^ 






1 1 Centre 


\ Radiusv 


/ \ Semicircle / 


\ Chord V 







Dimensions 



Tangent 

(Touching) 



Parts 





Anqle-85° 
Fig. 255. — Circles. 



Concentric 

(One centre) 
\]/ 



-m4 



Bisect an arc and its chord. 





1. Draw a circle tanqent to a z. Draw an arc or a circle 3. Inscribed circle, 
given line at a qiven point. tanqent to a right angle. Circumscribed square 




1 e 1 ^ 

A. Inscribe a square; an equilateral triangle. «5. Inscribe a circle in a trianqle. 
Circumscribe a circle. 



Fig. 256. — Construction of circles. 



FOR HOME AND SCHOOL 



289 





1. Inscribe a hexagon 



i Inscribe a pentagon 
A 




y '\/\ \ \ / 

\ / A A \ / 

3. Construct a pentaqon 

when one side is 

given. 



^..Inscribe a dodecagon 



5. Inscribe a fiqure of any 
number of sides. 
Divide AB into as many equal parts as 
there are to be sides. Use point 2.. 



Fig. 257. — Regular polygons. 




c 

Practical 
3. Circumscribed. Diameter between sides qiven. 



4 Inscribed . 
Diameter between angles qiven 



Fig. 258. — The octagon. 



290 



EDUCATIONAL WOODWORKING 





Cyma recta 



1 & f 

Cyma re versa 
(Ogee) 




Involute on a line . 




Involute on a square. 



Constant (equable) spiral. 

(Spiral of Archimedes) 
AB AB'etc=« radius vector. 



Variable (ge'ometric) spiral . 

i. Circle in centre is the eye') 



Pitch- V- 

Fig. 259. — Curves and spirals. 





'Pt j 1,2,3,4 are 

B ^certres for 

Compasses. 

LWith compasses- Approx. Z. With string. -Exact. 3. with trammel 

Three methods of drawing the ellipse.(Example,4ix6") 



\cf6=3 

T=thumb 

tach.S-ctrinq 

Pt*T*T'. are 

the foci (focusei). 




H D re*t» 
"on diam.d on 
"blAM.C give* ore 




1, WidthTqiven 




H / Example, zn oval i\i*i. 
ai-Di = 2 

£ x 2 M, the length if it 

were to be an ellipse as 
shown by broken outline. 

Proceed as in ellipse No.1. 



Z. Length and width given 



To draw an oval with compasses. 



Fig. 260. — Ellipse and oval. 



FOR HOME AND SCHOOL 



291 




Oblique prism Frustum of pyramid eurf3ce cf cone 

Fig. 261. — Solids. 




A five inch cube (s\s\s'). Twenty-five cubic inches (5x5x1"). 
Fig. 262. — The cube. 



292 



EDUCATIONAL WOODWORKING 



Thickness 



Scale,- &"-1* 



1. 



i£ -a** 



A board-foot-144 souare inches of 
board surface for less thick. 

Example: A piece of board 12 xU'nl.or 
Uxiz'x <>j, etc = a boar<H"oot. 



If it is Ik thick, it contain*. 1^ board-feet. 

.. . . z- - - 2. 

: •• .. s~ - a 

... 8" - > 8 -etc. 



z"x6*xiz' 



I / 



2x4 k 18* 



^ 



j'x AJ«' 



Each of these represents a board foot. 
Fig. 263. — Board measure. 



APPENDIX C 
Useful Tables 

U. S. WEIGHTS AND MEASURES 
LONG MEASURE (Measures of Length) 



Ins. 


Feet 


Yards Fath. Rods 


Furl. 


M 


12 = 


1 








36 = 


3 = 


1 






72 = 


6 = 


2=1 






198 = 


16* - 


5* = 2f = 1 






7920 = 


660 = 


220 = 110 = 40 


= 1 




3360 = 


5280 = 


1760 = 880 = 320 


= 8 - 


1 



6080.26 Feet = 1.15 Statute Miles = 1 Nautical Mile or Knot. 



SQUARE MEASURE (Measures of Surface) 

Sq. Iris. Sq. Feet Sq. Yards Sq. Rods Roods Acre 

144 = 1 

1296 = 9=1 

39204 = 272i = 30^ = 1 

1568160 = 10890 = 1210 = 40 = 1 

6272640 = 43560 = 4840 = 160 = 4 = 1 

640 Acres = 1 Square Mile. 
An Acre = a square whose side is 69.57 Yards or 208.71 Feet. 



CUBIC MEASURE (Measures of Volume) 

Cu. Ins. Cu. Feet Cu. Yard 

1728 = 1 
46656 = 27 = 1 

A Cord of Wood = 128 Cubic Feet, being 4 feet x 4 feet x 8 feet. 

42 Cubic Feet = a Ton of Shipping. 

1 Perch of Masonry = 24 f Cubic Feet, being 16* feet x 1* feet x 1 foot. 

293 



294 EDUCATIONAL WOODWORKING 

LIQUID OR WINE MEASURE 

The U. S. Standard Gallon measures 231 Cubic Inches, or 8.33888 
Pounds Avoirdupois of pure water, at about 39.85 degrees Fahr., the 
Barometer at 30 Inches. 



Gills Pints 


Quarts Gallons Tierces Hogsheads Puncheons 


Cubic 
Pipes Tun Inches 


4 = 1 = 








28.375 


8 = 2 = 


1 = 






57.75 


32 = 8 = 


4 = 1 = 






231. 


1344 = 336 = 


168 = 42 = 


1 






2016 = 504 = 


252 = 63 = 


n = 


1 




2488 = 672 = 


336 = 84 = 


2 = 


1* = 1 




4032 = 1008 = 


504 = 126 = 


3 = 


2 = 1} = 


1 


8064 = 2016 = 


1008 = 252 = 


6 = 


4 = 3 = 


2 = 1 



A Cubic Foot contains 7\ Gallons. 
The British Imperial Gallon contains 277.27 Cubic Inches and = 1.2 
U. S. Gallons. 

DRY MEASURE 

The Standard Bushel contains 2150.42 Cubic Inches, or 77.627013 
Pounds Avoirdupois of pure water at maximum density. Its legal 
dimensions are 18£ Inches diameter inside, 19£ Inches outside, and 
8 Inches deep ; and when heaped the cone must be 6 Inches high, 
making a heaped Bushel equal to \\ struck ones. 



Ints 




Quarts 


Gallons 


Pecks 


Bushel 


Cubic Inches 


2 


= 


1 


= 






67.2 


8 


= 


4 


= 1 


= 




268.8 


16 


= 


8 


= 2 


= 1 


= 


537.6 


64 


— 


32 


= 8 


= 4 


= 1 = 


= 2150.42 



The British Imperial Bushel contains 2218.2 Cubic Inches and = 1.03 
U. S. Bushels. 

AVOIRDUPOIS OR COMMERCIAL WEIGHT 

The Grain is the same in Troy, Apothecaries, and Avoirdupois 
Weights. 

The Standard Avoirdupois Pound is the weight of 27.7015 Cubic 
Inches of distilled water weighed in the air at 35.85 degrees Fahr., 
Barometer at 30 Inches. 27.343 Grains = 1 Drachm. 



FOR HOME AND SCHOOL 295 



Drachms 




Ozs. 




Lbs. 


L 


iong Qr 


8. L 


ong Cwt. 


16 


= 


1 














256 


= 


16 


= 


1 










7168 


= 


448 


= 


28 


= 


1 






28672 


= 


1792 


= 


112 


= 


4 


= 


1 


573440 


= 


35840 


= 


2240 


= 


80 


— 


20 = 



1 

The above Table gives what is known as the Long Ton. The Short 
Ton weighs 2000 Pounds. 





TROY 


WEIGHT 




tor Gold, 


Silver, ; 


md Precious Metals, 


Grains 


Dwts. 


Ozs. 


Lb. 


24 : 


1 






480 -- 


20 


1 




5760 = 


= 240 


= 12 : 


= 1 



175 Pounds Troy = 144 Avoirdupois. 

Pounds Avoirdupois -=- .82286 = Pounds Troy. 

Pounds Troy x 1.2153 = Pounds Avoirdupois. 

The Jewelers' Carat is equal, in the United States, to 3.2 Grains; in 
London, to 3.17 Grains; in Paris, to 3.18 Grains. 



APOTHECARIES WEIGHT 

United States and British. 

In Troy and Apothecaries Weights, the Grain, Ounce, and Pound 
are the same. 

Grams Scruples Drachms Ozs. Lb. 

20 = 1 

60 = 3=1 

480 = 24 = 8 = 1 

5760 = 288 = 96 = 12 = 1 



296 



EDUCATIONAL WOODWORKING 



THE METRIC SYSTEM 



Metric Denominations and Values. 



Names 



No. Grams. 



Millier or tonneau = 1,000,000 

Quintal = 100,000 

Myriagram = 10,000 

Kilogram or kilo = 1,000 

Hectogram = 100 

I )ekagram = 10 

Gram = 1 

Decigram = . 1 

Centigram = .01 

Milligram = .001 



WEIGHTS 

Equivalents in Denominations in use. 

Weight of what quantity of Avoirdupois 

water at maximum density. Weight. 

= 1 cubic meter = 2204.6 pounds 



1 hectoliter = 

= 10 liters = 

= 1 liter = 

= 1 deciliter = 

= 10 c. centimeters = 
= lc. centimeter = 
= .1 c. centimeter = 
= 10 c. millimeters = 
= 1 c. millimeter = 



220.46 pounds 
22.046 pounds 
2.2046 pounds 
3.5274 ounces 
0.8527 ounce 
15.432 grains 
1.5432 grains 
0.1543 grain 
0.0154 grain 



MEASURES OF LENGTH 

Metric Denominations and Values. 
Myriameter = 10,000 meters 



Equivalents in Denominations in use. 

= 6.2137 miles 

Kilometer 1,000 meters = 0.02137 mile, or 3,280 feet 10 in. 

Hectometer = 100 meters = 328 feet and 1 inch 

Dekameter = 10 meters = 393.7 inches 

Meter = 1 meter = 39.37 inches 

Decimeter = .1 of a meter = 3.937 inches 

Centimeter = .01 of a meter = 0.3937 inch 

Millimeter = .001 of a meter = 0.0394 inch 

MEASURES OF SURFACE 

Metric Denominations and Values. Equivalents in Denominations in use. 

Hectare = 10,000 square meters = 2.471 acres 

Are = 100 square meters = 119.6 square yards 

Centare = 1 square meter = 1.550 square inches 

MEASURES OF CAPACITY 



Metric Denominations and Values. 



Equivalents in Denominations in use. 



Names 


N 


0. Liters Cubic Measure 


Dry Measure 




Wine Measure 


Kiloliter 


= 


1,000 = 1 cubic meter 


= 


1.308 cubic yards 


= 


264.17 gallons 


Hectoliter 


= 


inn = .1 cubic meter 


= 


2 bush. 3.35 pecks 


= 


26.417 gallons 


Decaliter 


= 


10 = 10 c. decimeters 


= 


9.08 quarts 


= 


2.6417 gallons 


Liter 


= 


1 = 1 c. decimeter 


= 


0.908 quart 


= 


1.0567 quarts 


Deciliter 


= 


.1 = .1 c. decimeter 


= 


6.1022 cubic inches 


= 


0.845 gill 


Centiliter 


= 


.01 = 10 c. centimeters 


= 


0.6102 cubic inch 


= 


0.338 fluid oz, 


Milliliter 


= 


.001 = 1 c. centimeter 


= 


0.061 cubic inch 


= 


0.27 fluid dr, 



FOR HOME AND SCHOOL 



297 



"UNITED STATES" AND "METRIC" CONSTANTS 



Millimeters 

Millimeters 

Centimeters 

Centimeters 

Meters 

Meters 

Meters 

Kilometers 

Kilometers 

Kilometers 



LONG MEASURE 

.03037 = inches 

25.4 = inches 

.3037 = inches 

2.54 = inches 

30.37 = inches (Act of Congress) 

3.281 = feet 

1.004 = yards 

.621 = miles 

3280.7 = feet 

1.6003 = miles 



Square millimeters x 
Square millimeters -=- 
Square centimeters x 
Square centimeters -f- 
Square meters x 

Square kilometers x 
Hectares x 



SQUARE 

.0155 = 

645.1 

1.55 = 

6.451 = 

10.764 = 

247.1 

2.471 = 



MEASURE 

: square inches 
: square inches 
: square inches 
: square inches 

square feet 
: acres 
: acres 



Cubic centimeters -f- 

Cubic centimeters -4- 

Cubic centimeters -f- 

Cubic meters x 



CUBIC MEASURE 

16.383 = cubic inches 

3.60 = fluid drachms (U. S. P.) 

20.57 = fluid ounces (U. S. P.) 

35.315 = cubic feet 



Cubic meters 


X 


1 .308 = cubic yards 


Cubic meters 


x 264.2 = gallons (231 cubic inches 








LIQUID MEASURE 


Liters 


X 


61.022 


= cubic inches (Act of Congress) 


Liters 


X 


33.84 


= fluid ounces (U. S. Phar.) 


Liters 


X 


.2642 


= gallons (231 cubic inches) 


Liters 


H- 


3.78 


= gallons (231 cubic inches) 


Liters 


X 


28.316 


= cubic feet 


Hectoliters 


X 


3.531 


= cubic feet 


Hectoliters 


X 


2.84 


= bushels (2150.42 cubic inches) 


Hectoliters 


X 


.131 


= cubic yards 


Hectoliters 


-T- 


26.42 


= gallons (231 cubic inches) 



298 



EDUCATIONAL WOODWORKING 



WEIGHTS 

Grammes x 15.432 = grains (Act of Congress) 

Grammes x 981 =: dynes 

Grammes (water) -=- 29.57 = fluid ounces 

Grammes -f- 28.35 = ounces avoirdupois 

Grammes per cubic centimeter -f- 27.7 = pounds per cubic inch 

Joule x .7373 = foot pounds 

Kilograms x 2.2046 = pounds 

Kilograms x 35.3 = ounces avoirdupois 

Kilograms -h 1102.3 = tons (2,000 pounds) 

Kilograms x per square centimeter 14.223 = pounds per square inch 



CONTENTS (BOARD MEASURE) 
OF ONE LINEAL FOOT OF TIMBER 



— X 

_ K 












Thickness ij 


r Inches 












2 


3 


4 

6. 


5 





7 


8 


9 


10 


11 


12 
18 


13 


14 


18 


Q 


4.5 


7.5 


9 


10.5 


12 


13.5 


15 


16.5 


19.5 


21 


17 


2.83 


4.25 


5.66 


7.08 


8.5 


9.92 


11.33 


12.75 


14.17 


15.58 


17 


18.42 


19.83 


1(3 


2.67 


4 


5.33 


6.67 


8 


9.33 


10.67 


12 


13.33 


14.67 


L6 


17.33 


18.66 


15 


2.5 


3.75 


5 


6.25 


7.5 


8.75 


10 


11.25 


12.5 


13.75 


If, 


16.25 


17.5 


14 


2.33 


3.5 


4.67 


5.83 


7 


8.17 


9.33 


10.5 


11.67 


12.83 


14 


15.17 


16.33 


13 


2.17 


3.25 


4.33 


5.42 


6.5 


7.58 


8.67 


9.75 


10.83 


11.92 


13 


14.08 




12 


2 


3 


4 


5 


6 


7 


8 


9 


10 


11 


12 






11 


1.83 


2.75 


3.67 


4.58 


5.5 


6.42 


7.33 


8.25 


9.17 


10.08 








10 


1.67 


2.5 


3.33 


4.17 


5 


5.83 


6.67 


7.5 


8.33 










9 


1.6 


2.25 


3 


3.75 


4.5 


5.25 


6 


6.75 












8 


1.33 


2 


2.67 


3.33 


4 


4.67 


5.33 














7 


1.17 


1.75 


2.33 


2.92 


3.5 


4.08 
















G 


1 


1.5 


2 


2.5 


3 


















5 


.83 


1.25 


1.67 


2.08 




















4 


.67 


1 


1.33 






















3 


.5 


.75 
























2 


.33 



























To ascertain the contents of a piece of timber, find in the table the 
contents of one foot and multiply by the length, in feet, of the piece. 



FOR HOME AND SCHOOL 



299 



Example : What is the Contents (Board Measure) of a piece of 
timber 10 in. x 7 in., 20 ft. long ? 

Answer : 5.83 x 20 = 116.6 feet Board Measure. 



PROPERTIES OF TIMBER 



Description 


Weight 

per Cubic 

Foot 

in Lbs. 


Tensile 

Strength 

per Sq. In. 

in Lbs. 


Crushing 

Strength 

per Sq. In. 

in Lbs. 


Relative 
Strength 
for Cross 
Breaking. 
White 
Pine 
Equal 100 


Shearing 
Strength 
with the 

Grain. 
Lbs. per 

Sq. In. 


Ash .... 


43 to 55.8 


11,000 to 17,207 


4,400 to 9,363 


130 to 180 


458 to 700 


Beech . . . 


43 to 53.4 


11,500 to 18,000 


5,800 to 9,363 


100 to 144 


— 


Cedar. . . 


50 to 56.8 


10,300 to 11,400 


5,600 to 6,000 


55 to 63 


— 


Cherry . . 


— 


— 


— 


130 


— 


Chestnut . 


33 


10,500 


5,350 to 5,600 


96 to 133 


— 


Elm . . . 


34 to 36.7 


15,400 to 13,489 


6,831 to 10,331 


96 


— 


Hemlock . 


— 


8,700 


5,700 


88 to 95 


— 


Hickory . 


— 


12,800 to 18,000 


8,925 


150 to 210 


— 


Locust . . 


44 


20,500 to 24,800 


9,113 to 11,700 


132 to 227 


— 


Maple . . 


49 


10,500 to 10,584 


8,150 


122 to 220 


367 to 647 


Oak, white 


45 to 54.5 


10,253 to 19,500 


4,684 to 9,509 


130 to 177 


752 to 966 


Oak, live . 


70 


— 


6,850 


155 to 189 


— 


Pine, white 


30 


10,000 to 12,000 


5,000 to 6,650 


100 


225 to 423 


Pine, 












yellow . 


28.8 to 33 


12,600 to 19,200 


5,400 to 9,500 


98 to 170 


286 to 415 


Spruce . . 


— 


10,000 to 19,500 


5,050 to 7.850 


86 to 110 


253 to 374 


Walnut, 












black. . 


42 


9,286 to 16,000 


7,500 


— 



The above table should be taken with caution, as there is often very 
wide variations in any species. 



CUT NAILS AND TACKS 

THE TERM "PENNY" AS APPLIED TO NAILS 

The origin of the terms " six-penny," " ten-penny," etc., as applied 
to nails, though not commonly known, is involved in no mystery 
whatever. Nails have been made a certain number of pounds to the 



300 



EDUCATIONAL WOODWORKING 



thousand for many years, and are still reckoned in that way in 
England, a ten-penny being a thousand nails to ten pounds, a six- 
penny a thousand nails to six pounds, a twenty-penny weighing 
twenty pounds to the thousand ; and, in ordering, buyers call for the 
three-pound, six-pound, or ten-pound variety, etc., until, by the 
Englishman's abbreviation of "pun" for "pound," the abbreviation 
has been made to stand for penny, instead of pound, as originally 
intended. 



LENGTH AND NUMBER OF CUT NAILS TO THE POUND 



Size 


H 
CS 
V, 


o 

o 






V. 






V, 

■f. 

< 


r. 

Q 
< 


o 
p 


00 

W 

H 
6 


3 

4 * * 


fin. 


— 


— 


— 


— 


— 


800 








— 





7 

8 * * 


i 

8 


— 


— 


— 


— 


— 


500 








— 





2d . 


1 


800 


— 


— 


1100 


1100 


376 


— 





— 





3d . 


H 


480 


— 


— 


720 


760 


224 


— 





— 





4d . 


H 


288 


— 


— 


523 


368 


180 


398 





— 





5d . 


if 


200 


— 


— 


410 


— 


— 


— 





130 





6d . 


2 


168 


96 


84 


268 


— 


— 


224 


126 


96 





7d . 


H 


124 


74 


64 


188 


— 


— 


— 


98 


82 





8d . 


n 


88 


62 


48 


146 


— 


— 


128 


75 


68 





9d . 


n 


70 


53 


36 


130 


— 


— 


110 


65 


— 





lOd . 


3 


58 


46 


30 


102 


— 




91 


55 


— 


28 


12d . 


°4 


44 


42 


24 


76 


— 


— 


71 


40 


— 


— 


16d . 


3| 


34 


38 


20 


62 


— 


— 


54 


27 


— 


22 


20d . 


4 


23 


33 


16 


54 


— 


— 


40 


— 


— 


14^ 


30d . 


41 

^2 


18 


20 


— 


— 


— 


— 


33 


— 


— 


124 


40d . 


5 


14 


— 


— 


— 


— 


— 


27 


— 


— 


9 1 


50d . 


H 


10 


















8 


60d . 


6 

H 

7 


8 


















6 

41 

^2 























— 


8 














- 






91 

Z 2 



FOR HOME AND SCHOOL 



301 



TABLE FOR ESTIMATING QUANTITY OF NAILS 



1000 
1000 
1000 
1000 
1000 
1000 
1000 
1000 
1000 
1000 
1000 
1000 



Material 

shingles 

laths 

sq. ft. beveled siding . . . 
sq. ft. sheathing .... 
sq. ft. sheathing .... 

sq. ft. flooring 

sq. ft. flooring 

sq. ft. studding 

sq. ft. studding 

sq. ft. furring 1 x 2 in. . . 
sq. ft. finished flooring, | in. 
sq. ft. finished flooring, 11 in. 



Size of Nail 


Lbs. Required 


4d 


5 


3d 


7 


6d 


18 


8d 


20 


lOd 


25 


8d 


30 


lOd 


40 


lOd 


15 


20d 


5 


lOd 


10 


8d to lOd fin. 


20 


lOd fin. 


30 



TABLE OF DECIMAL EQUIVALENTS OF SCREW GAUGE 

FOR MACHINE AND WOOD SCREWS 

The difference between consecutive sizes is .01316". 



No. of 


Size of 


No. of 


Size of 


No. of 


Size of 


Screw 


Number in 


Screw 


Number in 


Screw 


Number in 


Gauge 


Decimals 


Gauge 


Decimals 


Gauge 


Decimals 


000 


.03152 


16 


.26840 


34 


.50528 


00 


.04486 


17 


.28156 


35 


.51844 





.05784 


18 


.29472 


36 


.53160 


1 


.07100 


19 


.30788 


37 


.54476 


2 


.08416 


20 


.32104 


38 


.55792 


3 


.09732 


21 


.33420 


39 


.57108 


4 


.11048 


22 


.34736 


40 


.58424 


5 


.12364 


23 


.36052 


41 


.59740 


6 


.13680 


24 


.37368 


42 


.61056 


7 


.14996 


25 


.38864 


43 


.62372 


8 


.16312 


26 


.40000 


44 


.63688 


9 


.17628 


27 


.41316 


45 


.65004 


10 


.18944 


28 


.42632 


46 


.66320 


11 


.20260 


29 


.43948 


47 


.67636 


12 


.21576 


30 


.45264 


48 


.68952 


13 


.22892 


31 


.46580 


49 


.70268 


14 


.24208 


32 


.47896 


50 


.71584 


15 


.25524 


33 


.49212 







302 



EDUCATIONAL WOODWORKING 



DIFFERENT STANDARDS FOR WIRE GAUGE IN USE IN 
THE UNITED STATES 

DIMENSIONS OF SIZES IN DECIMAL PARTS OF AN INCH 



- 0) 

?4 


American 

or Brown & 
Sbarpe 


Birmingham, 

or 
Stubs' Wire 


Washburn & 
Moen Mfg. Co's 
Worcester, Ms. 




u 

CO <B 
CO 


T3 
CO u 


° to 

£ « 

a 

U 


000000 











.464 





.46875 


000000 


00000 


— 


— 


— 


.432 


— 


.4375 


00000 


0000 


.46 


.454 


.3938 


.400 


— 


.40625 


0000 


000 


.40964 


.425 


.3625 


.372 


— 


.375 


000 


00 


.3648 


.38 


.3310 


.348 


— 


.34375 


00 





.32486 


.34 


.3065 


.324 


— 


.3125 





1 


.2893 


.3 


.2830 


.300 


.227 


.28125 


1 


2 


.25763 


.284 


.2625 


.276 


.219 


.265625 


2 


3 


.22942 


.259 


.2437 


.252 


.212 


.25 


3 


4 


.20431 


.238 


.2253 


.232 


.207 


.234375 


4 


5 


.18194 


.22 


.2070 


.212 


.204 


.21875 


5 





.10202 


.203 


.1920 


.192 


.201 


.203125 


6 


7 


.14428 


.18 


.1770 


.176 


.199 


.1875 


7 


8 


.12849 


.165 


.1620 


.160 


.197 


.171875 


8 


9 


.11443 


.148 


.1483 


.144 


.194 


.15025 


9 


10 


.10189 


.134 


.1350 


.128 


.191 


.140625 


10 


11 


.090742 


.12 


.1205 


.116 


.188 


.125 


11 


12 


.080808 


.109 


.1055 


.104 


.185 


.109375 


12 


13 


.071961 


.095 


.0915 


.092 


.182 


.09375 


13 


14 


.064084 


.083 


.0800 


.080 


.180 


.078125 


14 


15 


.057068 


.072 


.0720 


.072 


.178 


.0703125 


15 


1G 


.05082 


.065 


.0625 


.064 


.175 


.0625 


16 


17 


.045257 


.058 


.0540 


.056 


.172 


.05625 


17 


18 


.040303 


.049 


.0475 


.048 


.168 


.05 


18 


19 


.03589 


.042 


.0410 


.040 


.164 


.04375 


19 


20 


.031001 


.035 


.0348 


.036 


.161 


.0375 


20 


21 


.028462 


.032 


.03175 


.032 


.157 


.034375 


21 


22 


.025347 


.028 


.0286 


.028 


. 1 55 


.03125 


22 


23 


.022571 


.025 


.0258 


.024 


.153 


.028125 


23 



FOR HOME AND SCHOOL 



303 



DIFFERENT STANDARDS FOR WIRE GAUGE IN USE IN 
THE UNITED STATES— Continued 

DIMENSIONS OF SIZES IN DECIMAL PARTS OF AN INCH 



c to 

a « 

si 


American 

or Brown & 

Sharpe 


Birmingham, 

or 
Stubs' Wire 


Washburn & 
Moen Mfg. Co's 
Worcester, Ms. 


_ to 

a s 
"C rt 


u 


•6 

His 

teg 

fc3 


o to 
*- 2 

o « 

S 9 


24 


.0201 


.022 


.0230 


.022 


.151 


.025 


24 


25 


.0179 


.02 


.0204 


.020 


.148 


.021875 


25 


26 


.01594 


.018 


.0181 


.018 


.146 


.01875 


26 


27 


.014195 


.016 


.0173 


.0164 


.143 


.0171875 


27 


28 


.012641 


.014 


.0162 


.0149 


.139 


.015625 


28 


29 


.011257 


.013 


.0150 


.0136 


.134 


.0140625 


29 


30 


.010025 


.012 


.0140 


.0124 


.127 


.0125 


30 


31 


.008928 


.01 


.0132 


.0116 


.120 


.0109375 


31 


32 


.00795 


.009 


.0128 


.0108 


.115 


.01015625 


32 


33 


.00708 


.008 


.0118 


.0100 


.112 


.009375 


33 


34 


.006304 


.007 


.0104 


.0092 


.110 


.00859375 


34 


35 


.005614 


.005 


.0095 


.0084 


.108 


.0078125 


35 


36 


.005 


.004 


.0090 


.0076 


.106 


.00703125 


36 


37 


.004453 


— 


— 


.0068 


.103 


.006640625 


37 


38 


.003965 


— 


— 


.0060 


.101 


.00625 


38 


39 


.003531 


— 


— 


.0052 


.099 


— 


39 


40 


.003144 


— 


— 


.0048 


.097 




40 



SIZES OF NUMBERS OF THE U. S. STANDARD GAUGE 
FOR SHEET AND PLATE IRON AND STEEL 

An Act Establishing a Standard Gauge for Sheet and Plate Iron and Steel 

Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of the 
United States of America in Congress assembled : 

That for the purpose of securing uniformity the following is estab- 
lished as the only gauge for sheet and plate iron and steel in the United 
States of America, namely : 



304 



EDUCATIONAL WOODWORKING 



Number of 
Gauge 


Approximate 

Thickness in 

Fractions of 

an Inch 


Approximate 

Thickness in 

Decimal Parts 

of an Inch 


Weight per 

Square Foot 

in Ounces 

Avoirdupois 


Weight per 

Square Foot 

in Pounds 

Avoirdupois 


0000000 


1-2 


.5 


320 


20.00 


000000 


15-32 


.46875 


300 


18.75 


00000 


7-16 


.4375 


280 


17.50 


0000 


13-32 


.40625 


260 


16.25 


000 


3-8 


.375 


240 


15 


00 


11-32 


.34375 


220 


13.75 





5-16 


.3125 


200 


12.50 


1 


9-32 


.28125 


180 


11.25 


2 


17-64 


.265625 


170 


10.625 


3 


1-4 


.25 


160 


10 


4 


15-64 


.234375 


150 


9.375 


5 


7-32 


.21875 


140 


8.75 


6 


13-64 


.203125 


130 


8.125 


7 


3-16 


.1875 


120 


7.5 


8 


11-64 


.171875 


110 


6.875 


9 


5-32 


.15625 


100 


6.25 


10 


9-64 


.140625 


90 


5.625 


11 


1-8 


.125 


80 


5 


12 


7-64 


.109375 


70 


4.375 


13 


3-32 


.09375 


60 


3.75 


14 


5-64 


.078125 


50 


3.125 


15 


9-128 


.0703125 


45 


2.8125 


16 


1-16 


.0025 


40 


2.5 


17 


9-160 


.05625 


36 


2.25 


18 


1-20 


.05 


32 


2 


19 


7-160 


.04375 


28 


1.75 


20 


3-80 


.0375 


24 


1.50 


21 


11-320 


.034375 


22 


1.375 


22 


1-32 


.03125 


20 


1.25 


23 


9-320 


.028125 


18 


1.125 


24 


1-10 


.025 


16 


1 


25 


7-320 


.021875 


14 


.875 


26 


3-160 


.01875 


12 


.75 


27 


11-640 


.0171875 


11 


.6875 


28 


1-64 


.015625 


10 


.625 



FOR HOME AND SCHOOL 



305 



Number of 
Gauge 


Approximate 

Thickness in 

Fractions of 

an inch 


Approximate 

Thickness in 

Decimal Parts 

of an Inch 


Weight per 
Square Foot 

in Ounces 
Avoirdupois 


Weight per 
Square Foot 

in Pounds 
Avoirdupois 


29 


9-640 


.0140625 


9 


.5625 


30 


1-80 


.0125 


8 


.5 


31 


7-640 


.0109375 


7 


.4375 


32 


13-1280 


.01015625 


6h 


.40625 


33 


3-320 


.009375 


6 


.375 


34 


11-1280 


.00859375 


6i 


.34375 


35 


5-640 


.0078125 


5 


.3125 


36 


9-1280' 


.00703125 


4* 


.28125 


37 


17-2560 


.006640625 


H 


.265625 


38 


1-160 


.00625 


4 


.25 



And on and after July first, eighteen hundred and ninety-three, the 
same and no other shall be used in determining duties and taxes levied 
by the United States of America on sheet and plate iron and steel. 
But this act shall not be construed to increase duties upon any articles 
which may be imported. 

Section 3. That in the practical use and application of the standard 
gauge hereby established a variation of two and one-half per cent, 
either way may be allowed. 

Approved March 3, 1893. 

FORMULAE FOR MAKING BLUE PRINT PAPER 



Solution A 

Citrate of iron and ammonia . . . . 2| oz. 
Water 10 oz. 

Solution B 

Red prussiate of potash 1| oz. 

Water 10 oz. 

Solution C 

Gum arabic \ oz. 

Water 2 oz. 

x 



300 EDUCATIONAL WOODWORKING 

DIRECTIONS 

Use equal parts of solutions A and B and add a few drops of solu- 
tion C. Mix well and apply a thin even coat over the surface of the 
paper, using a wide, soft brush. This should be done by a very dim 
light. The coated paper will dry in a few minutes and should then be 
wrapped up securely so the light cannot get to it until used for print- 
ing. The printing is done in the sunlight, and then the paper is 
washed in clean cold water. 

Solutions A and B are sensitive to light and should be kept in 
colored bottles. 



INDEX 



(The names of the authorities cited in the text are printed in small capitals) 



Activities of race classified, 5. 

AnviJ, 85. 

Appendix A, Key to the more im- 
portant woods of North America, 
233 to 282. 

Appendix B, Problems in construc- 
tion, 283 to 292. 

Appendix C, Useful tables, 293 to 
306. 

Arrow, bow and, 3, 4. 

Auger, 72. 

Auger bit gauge, 75. 

Auger bits, 73. 

Bagley, William Chandler, 

quoted, 14. 
Bailey, Henry Turner, quoted, 

7. 
Band saw, 104. 
Bed marker, 193. 
Belt hooks, 118. 
Belt lacings, 115. 
Belt punch, 86. 
Belts, 112; formula? used in 

selecting, 114. 
Bench brush, 95. 
Benches, 21. 
Bench work, 174. 

Bennett, Charles A., quoted, 13. 
Bevel, 27. 

Bird's eye maple, 20. 
Blotter pad, 185 ; decorations for, 

186. 
Blue prints, 18 ; how to make, 305. 
Board measure, 292, 298. 
Bookcases, 196, 202. 
Book racks, 182, 183, 189, 195, 

203, 205. 
Boring tools, 72. 
Bottom of block, 19. 



Bow and arrow, 3, 4. 
Brace, or bit brace, 76. 
Brace measure, 32. 
Butcher, Carl, quoted, 6. 

Cabinet scraper, 94. 

Calipers, 37. 

Camp stool, 190. 

Carborundum stones, 91, 92. 

Carlyle, Thomas, quoted, 6. 

Carpenter's square, 28. 

Carvers' punch, 87. 

Checks, in wood, 20. 

Chessboard, 200. 

Chisels, socket firmer, 39 ; corner, 
40 ; tang firmer, 39, 40 ; turn- 
ing, 41 ; carving, 46. 

Circular saws, 107 ; speed of, 109 ; 
rules for speed, 110. 

Clamping tools, 79. 

Coat hangers, 175, 176. 

Combination saw bench, 106. 

Combination stones, 91. 

Compasses, 36, 37. 

Coniferous trees, 119. 

Corner shelf, 194. 

Countersink, 75. 

Counting board, 188. 

Cutting with knife, 167. 

Dado heads, 107. 

Desk and bookcase, combination, 

211. 
Dewey, John, quoted, 8. 
Dicotyledonous trees, 120. 
Dividers, 36, 37. 
Dopp, Katherine Elizabeth, 

quoted, 2. 
Double hinge lace, 118. 
Dovetail box, 189. 



307 



308 



INDEX 



Dovetail joint, end, 212; half, 213. 

Dowel bits, 74. 

Dress down surface, 19. 

Drills, 74. 

Dutch plate rack, 198. 

Edge tools, how to sharpen, 92, 93, 

94. 
Energy, 99. 
English measure, 23, 24, 25 ; 

tables, 293. 
Essex board measure, 33. 

Fastening devices, 129 to 148. 
File cleaner, 72. 
Files, 70, 71. 
Fillers, 155. 

Floor broom holder, 206. 
Folding screens, 199. 
Footstools, 199, 204. 
Formula? for color decorations, 151. 
Framing square, 28 ; history of, 
34. 

Gauge attachments, 36. 

Gimlet bit, 75. 

Glue, 141 to 146; kinds of, 141, 
142; how manufactured, 141, 
142; uses, 142, 143; heaters, 
143 ; methods of gluing, 144, 
145. 

Gouges, turning, 40, 41 ; carving, 
. 42, 43, 44, 45. 

Grain of wood, 12. 

Grindstone, 87. 

Grindstone truing device, 89. 

Gripi^ing tools, 79. 

Hammers, 83, 84. 

Handles, 95, 96. 

Hand screw, 79. 

Haney, James P., quoted, 12. 

Indian tribes, rules regarding bow 

and arrow, 4. 
Inkstand, 191. 
Institutions of society, 6. 

James, Professor, quoted, 12. 
Jardiniere stand, 206. 



Jointer, 111. 

Joints and wood fastenings, 147. 

Karr, Grant, quoted, 9. 

Key rack, 187. 

Key to the more important woods 

of North America, 233. 
Knife box, 195. 
Knife, sloyd, 38, 39. 
Knife work, 163 to 174. 

Lathe, woodturning, 111, 112, 113, 

215, 216. 
Lay out work, 19. 
Letters and figures, 96. 
Lumbering, 121. 

Magazine rack, 208. 

Mallet, 85. 

Man, a tool-using animal, 1. 

Manual training, defined, 1 ; its 

place in education, 1 to 15. 
Marking gauge, 35. 
Match box, 170, 171. 
Match strike, 165 to 169. 
Maydole, David, 83. 
Measure, long, 293 ; square, 293 ; 

cubic, 293 ; liquid, 294 ; dry, 294. 
Measuring and lining, 163, 164, 165. 
Metric system, 25 ; tables, 296. 
Miter box, 68, 69. 
Miter planer, 69. 
Model, 19. 

Monocotyledonous trees, 120. 
Morris, William, qvioted, 14. 
Mortise-and-tenon joint, through, 

214. 
Mortise gauge, 35, 36. 

Nails and nailing, 129 to 135. 

Nails, history of, 129, 130; kinds 
of, 130, 131 ; penny, 130 ; names 
of steel wire, 131, 132, 133; cut, 
132 ; uses, 134 ; steel wire brads, 
135; tables, 299, 300, 301. 

Nail set, 86. 

New style lace, 116. 

Object, 19. 

Octagon "eight-square" scale, 32. 



INDEX 



309 



Oiler, 95. 

Oil slip, 91. 

Oil stone, 90. 

Old style lace, 115. 

O'Shea, M. V., quoted, 8. 

Parker, Col. F. W., quoted, 10, 11. 

Parting tool, 41, 47. 

Picture frames, 188, 207. 

Pigments, 152. 

Planes, 48 to 53. 

Plant marker, 193. 

Plate iron gauge, 304, 305. 

Plate racks, 198, 208. 

Pliers, flat nose, round nose, 82. 

Plug cutter, 78. 

Plumb and level, 34, 35. 

Polishing in the lathe, 158. 

Pounding tools, 86. 

Power, 99 to 104. 

Problems in construction and 

geometric helps, 283 to 290. 
Project, 19. 
Punching tools, 86. 

Rafter table, 28 to 31. 

Rasps, 70, 71, 72. 

Rule, 26. 

Ruskin, John, quoted, 14. 

Saw bench, 106. 

Saw guard, 107. 

Sawing exercise, 211. 

Saws, their construction, 55 ; rip, 
57 ; how to sharpen, 57 ; cross- 
cut, 62 ; how to sharpen, 62 ; 
back, 66 ; bracket, 67 ; hack, 
68 ; miter, 69 ; swing, 105. 

Schedule of work, 15, 16. 

Screw clamp, 79. 

Screwdriver, 77. 

Screwdriver bit, 77. 

Screw and plug bit, 78. 

Screws, definition of, 136 ; history 
of, 137; classification of, 137; 
uses of, 137, 138 ; how to drive, 
139, 140; gauge, 301. 

Scribe, 20. 

Scripture, Edward W., quoted, 
13. 



Shellac, 154, 155. 

Shelves, 174, 175, 187. 

Single hinge lace, 112. 

Sleeve board, 193. 

Sloyd knife, 38, 39. 

Snips, 54. 

Spokeshave, 54. 

Square, or steel square, 28 to 34. 

Squaring a block, 19. 

Stains, how to prepare, 153. 

Steel bar clamp, 80. 

Stickley, Gustav, quoted, 12. 

Stock, 18. 

Suggestions to students, 15, 16. 

Surfacer, single, 110. 

Sweet-pea rack, 201. 

Tabourets, 190, 192, 197. 

Technical terms, 18. 

Timber, properties of, 299. 

Tool list, 20. 

Toothbrush holder and shelf, 178, 

179. 
Towel rollers, 179, 180, 181, 191, 

194. 
Trees, decay of, 121. 
Trimmer, 97, 98. 
Try-square, 27. 

Umbrella rack, 209. 

Varnishes, 153. 
Vehicles, 152. 

Vise, stationary iron, 80 ; picture 
frame, 83 ; saw, 82. 

Weights, avoirdupois, 294 ; troy, 
295 ; apothecaries, 295. 

Whisk-broom holders, 172, 173, 
184. 

Wilson, Thomas, quoted, 4. 

Windmill vane, 210. 

Wire gauge, 38 ; tables, 303. 

Wood, outline study, 119; compo- 
sition of, 121 ; properties of, 121 ; 
weight, 121, 122; seasoning, 122, 
123 ; shrinkage, 123 ; stiffness 
or elasticity, 123 ; laws of, 124 ; 
table of, 125 ; cross-breaking or 
bending strength, 125 ; laws of, 



310 



INDEX 



125, 126; table of, 126; tension 
and compression, 127 ; table of, 
127, 128; shearing, 128; cleav- 
ability, 128; flexibility, 128; 
toughness, 128. 

Wood-carving tools, 42. 

Wood drills, 74. 

Wood fastenings, dowels, pins, 
cleats, keys, wedges, 146, 147. 

Wood finishing, 149 ; specifications 
for, 155 to 158. 

Woods, non-porous, 234, 236 to 
240; ring-porous, 234, 240 to 



246; diffuse-porous, 235, 246 
to 252 ; list of the more impor- 
tant woods of the United States, 
253 to 282. 

Wood turning, 215 (see Lathe, 111) ; 
history of, 216 ; directions for, 
216, 217; exercises, 217 to 232; 
tools, 42 ; positions of tools, 218 
to 221, 226. 

Work, 99 ; schedule of, 15, 16. 

Work, Cree T., quoted, 18. 

Working face, 18. 

Wrench, 81. 



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